1
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Wang Z, Shao J. Fungal vaccines and adjuvants: a tool to reveal the interaction between host and fungi. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:293. [PMID: 38850421 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-04010-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Fungal infections are incurring high risks in a range from superficial mucosal discomforts (such as oropharyngeal candidiasis and vulvovaginal candidiasis) to disseminated life-threatening diseases (such as invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and cryptococcal meningitis) and becoming a global health problem in especially immunodeficient population. The major obstacle to conquer fungal harassment lies in the presence of increasing resistance to conventional antifungal agents used in newly clinically isolated strains. Although recombinant cytokines and mono-/poly-clonal antibodies are added into antifungal armamentarium, more effective antimycotic drugs are exceedingly demanded. It is comforting that the development of fungal vaccines and adjuvants opens up a window to brighten the prospective way in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of fungal assaults. In this review, we focus on the progression of several major fungal vaccines devised for the control of Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Cryptococcus spp., Coccidioides spp., Paracoccidioides spp., Blastomyces spp., Histoplasma spp., Pneumocystis spp. as well as the adjuvants adopted. We then expound the interaction between fungal vaccines/adjuvants and host innate (macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils), humoral (IgG, IgM and IgA) and cellular (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Tc17) immune responses which generally experience immune recognition of pattern recognition receptors, activation of immune cells, and clearance of invaded fungi. Furthermore, we anticipate an in-depth understanding of immunomodulatory properties of univalent and multivalent vaccines against diverse opportunistic fungi, providing helpful information in the design of novel fungal vaccines and adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixu Wang
- Laboratory of Anti-Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei, 230012, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Shao
- Laboratory of Anti-Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei, 230012, Anhui, People's Republic of China.
- Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei, 230012, Anhui, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Abstract
The respiratory tree maintains sterilizing immunity against human fungal pathogens. Humans inhale ubiquitous filamentous molds and geographically restricted dimorphic fungal pathogens that form small airborne conidia. In addition, pathogenic yeasts, exemplified by encapsulated Cryptococcus species, and Pneumocystis pose significant fungal threats to the lung. Classically, fungal pneumonia occurs in immune compromised individuals, specifically in patients with HIV/AIDS, in patients with hematologic malignancies, in organ transplant recipients, and in patients treated with corticosteroids and targeted biologics that impair fungal immune surveillance in the lung. The emergence of fungal co-infections during severe influenza and COVID-19 underscores the impairment of fungus-specific host defense pathways in the lung by respiratory viruses and by medical therapies to treat viral infections. Beyond life-threatening invasive syndromes, fungal antigen exposure can exacerbate allergenic disease in the lung. In this review, we discuss emerging principles of lung-specific antifungal immunity, integrate the contributions and cooperation of lung epithelial, innate immune, and adaptive immune cells to mucosal barrier immunity, and highlight the pathogenesis of fungal-associated allergenic disease. Improved understanding of fungus-specific immunity in the respiratory tree has paved the way to develop improved diagnostic, pre-emptive, therapeutic, and vaccine approaches for fungal diseases of the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena J Heung
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Research Division of Immunology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Women's Guild Lung Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Darin L Wiesner
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Keyi Wang
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Amariliz Rivera
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Tobias M Hohl
- Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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3
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Sharma J, Mudalagiriyappa S, Nanjappa SG. T cell responses to control fungal infection in an immunological memory lens. Front Immunol 2022; 13:905867. [PMID: 36177012 PMCID: PMC9513067 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.905867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, fungal vaccine research emanated significant findings in the field of antifungal T-cell immunity. The generation of effector T cells is essential to combat many mucosal and systemic fungal infections. The development of antifungal memory T cells is integral for controlling or preventing fungal infections, and understanding the factors, regulators, and modifiers that dictate the generation of such T cells is necessary. Despite the deficiency in the clear understanding of antifungal memory T-cell longevity and attributes, in this review, we will compile some of the existing literature on antifungal T-cell immunity in the context of memory T-cell development against fungal infections.
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4
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Kohn EM, Dos Santos Dias L, Dobson HE, He X, Wang H, Klein BS, Wüthrich M. SLAMF1 Is Dispensable for Vaccine-Induced T Cell Development but Required for Resistance to Fungal Infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2022; 208:1417-1423. [PMID: 35217584 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Homotypic signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) receptor-ligand cell surface interactions between myeloid and lymphoid cells regulate innate and adaptive immune responses. In this article, we report that SLAMF1 is indispensable for host resistance to primary and vaccine-induced protection against fungal infection. Because vaccine immunity is dependent on cell-mediated immunity, we investigated the development of Ag-specific T cells. We studied the T cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic role of SLAMF1. We generated SLAMF1-/- TCR transgenic mice and analyzed the responses of adoptively transferred T cells. We also tracked endogenous Ag-specific T cells by using a tetramer. Intrinsic and extrinsic SLAMF1 signaling was dispensable for the development of antifungal Th1 and Th17 cells, which are requisite for the acquisition of vaccine-induced immunity. Despite intact T cell development, vaccinated SLAMF1-/- mice failed to control fungal infection. Failed accumulation of Ag-specific T cells in the lung on infection of vaccinated mice was due to uncontrolled early infection and inflammation, revealing a role for SLAMF1 in innate host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine M Kohn
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Lucas Dos Santos Dias
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Hannah E Dobson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Xin He
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Huafeng Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Bruce S Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI; and.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI;
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5
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dos Santos Dias L, Dobson HE, Bakke BK, Kujoth GC, Huang J, Kohn EM, Taira CL, Wang H, Supekar NT, Fites JS, Gates D, Gomez CL, Specht CA, Levitz SM, Azadi P, Li L, Suresh M, Klein BS, Wüthrich M. Structural basis of Blastomyces Endoglucanase-2 adjuvancy in anti-fungal and -viral immunity. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009324. [PMID: 33735218 PMCID: PMC8009368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of safe subunit vaccines requires adjuvants that augment immunogenicity of non-replicating protein-based antigens. Current vaccines against infectious diseases preferentially induce protective antibodies driven by adjuvants such as alum. However, the contribution of antibody to host defense is limited for certain classes of infectious diseases such as fungi, whereas animal studies and clinical observations implicate cellular immunity as an essential component of the resolution of fungal pathogens. Here, we decipher the structural bases of a newly identified glycoprotein ligand of Dectin-2 with potent adjuvancy, Blastomyces endoglucanase-2 (Bl-Eng2). We also pinpoint the developmental steps of antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T responses augmented by Bl-Eng2 including expansion, differentiation and tissue residency. Dectin-2 ligation led to successful systemic and mucosal vaccination against invasive fungal infection and Influenza A infection, respectively. O-linked glycans on Bl-Eng2 applied at the skin and respiratory mucosa greatly augment vaccine subunit- induced protective immunity against lethal influenza and fungal pulmonary challenge. Fungal disease remains a challenging clinical and public health problem in part because there is no commercial vaccine available. The lack of suitable adjuvants is a critical barrier to developing safe and effective vaccines against fungal pathogens. Current adjuvants such as alum preferentially induce antibody responses which may be limited in mediating protection against fungi. Clinical observations and animal studies implicate cellular immunity as the essential component for the resolution of fungal infections. We have recently discovered an adjuvant that augments cell mediated immune responses and vaccine induced protection against fungi. Here, we identified the structural and mechanistic requirements by which this newly discovered adjuvant induces cell mediated immunity against fungi. As a proof of principle we also demonstrate that the adjuvant drives cellular immune responses against viruses such as influenza. We anticipate that our adjuvant can be used for vaccination with safe subunit vaccines against many microbial pathogens including viruses, intracellular bacteria, fungi and parasites that require cell mediated immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas dos Santos Dias
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Hannah E. Dobson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Brock Kingstad Bakke
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Gregory C. Kujoth
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Junfeng Huang
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Elaine M. Kohn
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Cleison Ledesma Taira
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Huafeng Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Nitin T. Supekar
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - J. Scott Fites
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Daisy Gates
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Christina L. Gomez
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Charles A. Specht
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stuart M. Levitz
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Parastoo Azadi
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Lingjun Li
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Marulasiddappa Suresh
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Bruce S. Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Deparment of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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6
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Vaccine Development to Systemic Mycoses by Thermally Dimorphic Fungi. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40475-019-00179-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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7
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Hung CY, Hsu AP, Holland SM, Fierer J. A review of innate and adaptive immunity to coccidioidomycosis. Med Mycol 2019; 57:S85-S92. [PMID: 30690602 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myy146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Coccidioidomycosis is a human fungal disease cause by inhalation of aerosol spores produced by Coccidioides posadasii or Coccidioides immitis. This disease is a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia in the endemic areas of the Southwestern United States. It also can present as a life-threatening disease as the fungal cells disseminate to skin, bone, and central nervous system. The outcome of coccidioidomycosis is largely determined by the nature of host immune response to the infection. Escalation of symptomatic infections and increased cost of long-term antifungal treatment warrant a concerted effort to better understand the innate and adaptive immune responses and the genetics associated with coccidioidomycosis susceptibility. This knowledge can be harnessed for development of a human vaccine against Coccidioides and advance clinic management of this disease. This review discusses recently reported studies on innate and adaptive immunity to Coccidioides infection, Mendelian susceptibility to disseminated disease and progress toward a human vaccine against this formidable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Yu Hung
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Amy P Hsu
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven M Holland
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Joshua Fierer
- Infectious Diseases Section, VA Healthcare San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
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8
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Glucan-Chitin Particles Enhance Th17 Response and Improve Protective Efficacy of a Multivalent Antigen (rCpa1) against Pulmonary Coccidioides posadasii Infection. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00070-18. [PMID: 30104216 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00070-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing an effective and safe recombinant vaccine requires microbe-specific antigens combined with an adjuvant/delivery system to strengthen protective immunity. In this study, we designed and expressed a multivalent recombinant Coccidioides polypeptide antigen (rCpa1) that consists of three previously identified antigens (i.e., Ag2/Pra, Cs-Ag, and Pmp1) and five pathogen-derived peptides with high affinity for human major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) molecules. The purified rCpa1 was encapsulated into four types of yeast cell wall particles containing β-glucan, mannan, and chitin in various proportions or was mixed with an oligonucleotide (ODN) containing two methylated dinucleotide CpG motifs. This multivalent antigen encapsulated into glucan-chitin particles (GCP-rCpa1) showed significantly greater reduction of fungal burden for human HLA-DR4 transgenic mice than the other adjuvant-rCpa1 formulations tested. Among the adjuvants tested, both GCPs and β-glucan particles (GPs) were capable of stimulating a mixed Th1 and Th17 response. Mice vaccinated with GCP-rCpa1 showed higher levels of interleukin 17 (IL-17) production in T-cell recall assays and earlier lung infiltration by activated Th1 and Th17 cells than GP-rCpa1-vaccinated mice. Both C57BL/6 and HLA-DR4 transgenic mice that were vaccinated with the GCP-rCpa1 vaccine showed higher survival rates than mice that received GCPs alone. Concurrently, the GCP-rCpa1 vaccine stimulated greater infiltration of the injection sites by macrophages, which engulf and process the vaccine for antigen presentation, than the GP-rCpa1 vaccine. This is the first attempt to systematically characterize the presentation of a multivalent coccidioidomycosis vaccine encapsulated with selected adjuvants that enhance the protective cellular immune response to infection.
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9
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Poston TB, Qu Y, Girardi J, O'Connell CM, Frazer LC, Russell AN, Wall M, Nagarajan UM, Darville T. A Chlamydia-Specific TCR-Transgenic Mouse Demonstrates Th1 Polyfunctionality with Enhanced Effector Function. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2017; 199:2845-2854. [PMID: 28855311 PMCID: PMC5770186 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia is responsible for millions of new infections annually, and current efforts focus on understanding cellular immunity for targeted vaccine development. The Chlamydia-specific CD4 T cell response is characterized by the production of IFN-γ, and polyfunctional Th1 responses are associated with enhanced protection. A major limitation in studying these responses is the paucity of tools available for detection, quantification, and characterization of polyfunctional Ag-specific T cells. We addressed this problem by developing a TCR-transgenic (Tg) mouse with CD4 T cells that respond to a common Ag in Chlamydia muridarum and Chlamydia trachomatis Using an adoptive-transfer approach, we show that naive Tg CD4 T cells become activated, proliferate, migrate to the infected tissue, and acquire a polyfunctional Th1 phenotype in infected mice. Polyfunctional Tg Th1 effectors demonstrated enhanced IFN-γ production compared with polyclonal cells, protected immune-deficient mice against lethality, mediated bacterial clearance, and orchestrated an anamnestic response. Adoptive transfer of Chlamydia-specific CD4 TCR-Tg T cells with polyfunctional capacity offers a powerful approach for analysis of protective effector and memory responses against chlamydial infection and demonstrates that an effective monoclonal CD4 T cell response may successfully guide subunit vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor B Poston
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Yanyan Qu
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Jenna Girardi
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Catherine M O'Connell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Lauren C Frazer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Ali N Russell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - McKensie Wall
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Uma M Nagarajan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Toni Darville
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
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10
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Abstract
Pathogenic fungi cause a wide range of syndromes in immune-competent and immune-compromised individuals, with life-threatening disease primarily seen in humans with HIV/AIDS and in patients receiving immunosuppressive therapies for cancer, autoimmunity, and end-organ failure. The discovery that specific primary immune deficiencies manifest with fungal infections and the development of animal models of mucosal and invasive mycoses have facilitated insight into fungus-specific recognition, signaling, effector pathways, and adaptive immune responses. Progress in deciphering the molecular and cellular basis of immunity against fungi is guiding preclinical studies into vaccine and immune reconstitution strategies for vulnerable patient groups. Furthermore, recent work has begun to address the role of endogenous fungal communities in human health and disease. In this review, we summarize a contemporary understanding of protective immunity against fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Iliyan D Iliev
- Jill Roberts Institute for Research in IBD, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Tobias M Hohl
- Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, and Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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11
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Immune Response to Coccidioidomycosis and the Development of a Vaccine. Microorganisms 2017; 5:microorganisms5010013. [PMID: 28300772 PMCID: PMC5374390 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms5010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal infection caused by Coccidioides posadasii and Coccidioides immitis. It is estimated that 150,000 new infections occur in the United States each year. The incidence of this infection continues to rise in endemic regions. There is an urgent need for the development of better therapeutic drugs and a vaccine against coccidioidomycosis. This review discusses the features of host innate and adaptive immune responses to Coccidioides infection. The focus is on the recent advances in the immune response and host-pathogen interactions, including the recognition of spherules by the host and defining the signal pathways that guide the development of the adaptive T-cell response to Coccidioides infection. Also discussed is an update on progress in developing a vaccine against these fungal pathogens.
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12
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Abstract
Coccidioidomycosis is a potentially life-threatening mycosis endemic to the Southwestern USA and some arid regions of Central and South America. A vaccine against Coccidioides infection would benefit over 30-million people who reside in or visit the endemic regions. Vaccine candidates against systemic fungal infections come in many forms. Live attenuated vaccines are derived from disease-causing pathogens and generally stimulate excellent protective immunity. Since attenuated vaccines contain living microbes, there is a degree of unpredictability raising concerns regarding safety and stability. Generation of a subunit vaccine has initiated efforts to design a safe reagent suitable for administration to humans at risk of coccidioidomycosis. Epitope-based vaccines allow for eliciting specific protective immune responses and removal of potentially detrimental sequences to improve safety. This chapter describes methods for the identification of T cell epitopes derived from Coccidioides antigens, design, and production of a recombinant vaccine containing multiple T cell epitopes, and evaluation of its protective efficacy and vaccine immunity against pulmonary Coccidioides infection using a strain of transgenic mice that express a human MHC II molecule.
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13
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Filamentous mycoses are often associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Prompt diagnosis and aggressive treatment are essential for good clinical outcomes in immunocompromised patients. The host immune response plays an essential role in determining the course of exposure to potential fungal pathogens. Depending on the effectiveness of immune response and the burden of organism exposure, fungi can either be cleared or infection can occur and progress to a potentially fatal invasive disease. Nonspecific cellular immunity (i.e., neutrophils, natural killer [NK] cells, and macrophages) combined with T-cell responses are the main immunologic mechanisms of protection. The most common potential mold pathogens include certain hyaline hyphomycetes, endemic fungi, the
Mucorales
, and some dematiaceous fungi. Laboratory diagnostics aimed at detecting and differentiating these organisms are crucial to helping clinicians make informed decisions about treatment. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the medically important fungal pathogens, as well as to discuss the patient characteristics, antifungal-therapy considerations, and laboratory tests used in current clinical practice for the immunocompromised host.
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Abstract
Vaccines are needed to combat the global rise in fungal diseases. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Wüthrich et al. (2015) identify calnexin as a target of antigen-specific CD4 T cell responses against multiple fungal pathogens. This study illustrates that a conserved epitope triggers convergent cell-mediated immune responses to confer heterologous antifungal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amariliz Rivera
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
| | - Tobias M Hohl
- Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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15
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Hung CY, Wozniak KL, Cole GT. Flow Cytometric Analysis of Protective T-Cell Response Against Pulmonary Coccidioides Infection. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1403:551-66. [PMID: 27076153 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3387-7_31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of systemic fungal infections has increased throughout the world, spurring much interest in developing effective vaccines. Coccidioidomycosis, also known as San Joaquin Valley fever, is a potentially life-threatening respiratory mycosis. A vaccine against Coccidioides infection would contribute significantly to the well-being of the approx. 30 million residents in the Southwestern USA as well as the multitude of travelers who annually visit the endemic regions. We have applied a live, attenuated vaccine (∆T) to explore the nature of vaccine immunity in mice after intranasal challenge with a potentially lethal dose of Coccidioides spores. Coccidioides spores are airborne and highly infectious for mammalian hosts and classified as a biosafety level 3 agent. T cells are critical in the development of protective immunity against a variety of microorganisms as well as the development of autoimmune disease and allergic responses. Profiles of cytokines detected in lung homogenates of ∆T-vaccinated mice were indicative of a mixed Th1, Th2, and Th17 immune response. We have developed an intracellular cytokine staining and flow cytometric (ICS) technique to measure activated CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and IFN-γ-, IL-4-, IL-5-, and IL-17A-producing T cells in the lungs of mice that are challenged with a potentially lethal dose of Coccidioides spores. The numbers of pulmonary Th1 and Th17 cells during the first 2 weeks post-challenge showed a progressive increase in vaccinated mice and corresponded with reduction of fungal burden. In this protocol, we describe the methodology for culture and isolation of the live, attenuated ΔT spores of Coccidioides used to vaccinate mice, preparation of pulmonary cells, and staining protocol for cell surface markers and intracellular cytokines. This is the most reliable and robust procedure to measure frequencies and numbers of each selected T-cell subsets in lungs of vaccinated versus control mice and can be readily applied to evaluate T-cell response against other microbial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Yu Hung
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA.
- Biology Department, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX, 78249-0662, USA.
| | - Karen L Wozniak
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA
| | - Garry T Cole
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA
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The C-Type Lectin Receptor MCL Mediates Vaccine-Induced Immunity against Infection with Blastomyces dermatitidis. Infect Immun 2015; 84:635-42. [PMID: 26667836 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01263-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) are essential in shaping the immune response to fungal pathogens. Vaccine-induced resistance requires Dectin-2 to promote differentiation of antifungal Th1 and Th17 cells. Since Dectin-2 and MCL heterodimerize and both CLRs use FcRγ as the signaling adaptor, we investigated the role of MCL in vaccine immunity to the fungal pathogen Blastomyces dermatitidis. MCL(-/-) mice showed impaired vaccine resistance against B. dermatitidis infection compared to that of wild-type animals. The lack of resistance correlated with the reduced recruitment of Th17 cells to the lung upon recall following experimental challenge and impaired interleukin-17 (IL-17) production by vaccine antigen-stimulated splenocytes in vitro. Soluble MCL fusion protein recognized and bound a water-soluble ligand from the cell wall of vaccine yeast, but the addition of soluble Dectin-2 fusion protein did not augment ligand recognition by MCL. Taken together, our data indicate that MCL regulates the development of vaccine-induced Th17 cells and protective immunity against lethal experimental infection with B. dermatitidis.
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Trautwein-Weidner K, Gladiator A, Kirchner FR, Becattini S, Rülicke T, Sallusto F, LeibundGut-Landmann S. Antigen-Specific Th17 Cells Are Primed by Distinct and Complementary Dendritic Cell Subsets in Oropharyngeal Candidiasis. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005164. [PMID: 26431538 PMCID: PMC4591991 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida spp. can cause severe and chronic mucocutaneous and systemic infections in immunocompromised individuals. Protection from mucocutaneous candidiasis depends on T helper cells, in particular those secreting IL-17. The events regulating T cell activation and differentiation toward effector fates in response to fungal invasion in different tissues are poorly understood. Here we generated a Candida-specific TCR transgenic mouse reactive to a novel endogenous antigen that is conserved in multiple distant species of Candida, including the clinically highly relevant C. albicans and C. glabrata. Using TCR transgenic T cells in combination with an experimental model of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) we investigated antigen presentation and Th17 priming by different subsets of dendritic cells (DCs) present in the infected oral mucosa. Candida-derived endogenous antigen accesses the draining lymph nodes and is directly presented by migratory DCs. Tissue-resident Flt3L-dependent DCs and CCR2-dependent monocyte-derived DCs collaborate in antigen presentation and T cell priming during OPC. In contrast, Langerhans cells, which are also present in the oral mucosa and have been shown to prime Th17 cells in the skin, are not required for induction of the Candida-specific T cell response upon oral challenge. This highlights the functional compartmentalization of specific DC subsets in different tissues. These data provide important new insights to our understanding of tissue-specific antifungal immunity. Candida spp. are present in the normal microbiota without causing damage to the host. They can become pathogenic and bear a serious health hazard for individuals with a weakened immune system. The continuous incidence of fungal infections and the increase in resistance against available antifungal drugs urge the development of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies. Knowledge gained from understanding how immunocompetent mammals control Candida will help develop new immunotherapeutic and-prophylactic approaches suitable to improve patient prognosis. It is well known that T helper cells, and in particular the Th17 subset, provide resistance against mucocutaneous infections with Candida. However, the mechanisms through which T cell-mediated antifungal immunity is induced in such context are not well understood. Here we developed a new experimental system to study the regulation of antigen-specific T cells with high resolution. Our results reveal the interplay of different dendritic cell subsets associated to the oral mucosa of infected mice that directly present fungal antigen to Candida-specific T cells and orchestrate a protective Th17 response in a tissue specific manner. Thus, our data highlight important features of immune regulation in the oral mucosa, a tissue that is immunologically not well characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Florian R. Kirchner
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Section of Immunology, Institute of Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Simone Becattini
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rülicke
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Federica Sallusto
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Salomé LeibundGut-Landmann
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Section of Immunology, Institute of Virology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Wüthrich M, Brandhorst TT, Sullivan TD, Filutowicz H, Sterkel A, Stewart D, Li M, Lerksuthirat T, LeBert V, Shen ZT, Ostroff G, Deepe GS, Hung CY, Cole G, Walter JA, Jenkins MK, Klein B. Calnexin induces expansion of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells that confer immunity to fungal ascomycetes via conserved epitopes. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:452-65. [PMID: 25800545 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infections remain a threat due to the lack of broad-spectrum fungal vaccines and protective antigens. Recent studies showed that attenuated Blastomyces dermatitidis confers protection via T cell recognition of an unknown but conserved antigen. Using transgenic CD4(+) T cells recognizing this antigen, we identify an amino acid determinant within the chaperone calnexin that is conserved across diverse fungal ascomycetes. Calnexin, typically an ER protein, also localizes to the surface of yeast, hyphae, and spores. T cell epitope mapping unveiled a 13-residue sequence conserved across Ascomycota. Infection with divergent ascomycetes, including dimorphic fungi, opportunistic molds, and the agent causing white nose syndrome in bats, induces expansion of calnexin-specific CD4(+) T cells. Vaccine delivery of calnexin in glucan particles induces fungal antigen-specific CD4(+) T cell expansion and resistance to lethal challenge with multiple fungal pathogens. Thus, the immunogenicity and conservation of calnexin make this fungal protein a promising vaccine target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Tristan T Brandhorst
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Thomas D Sullivan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Hanna Filutowicz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Alana Sterkel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Douglas Stewart
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Mengyi Li
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Tassanee Lerksuthirat
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Vanessa LeBert
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Zu Ting Shen
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Gary Ostroff
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - George S Deepe
- University of Cincinnati College of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA
| | - Chiung Yu Hung
- University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Garry Cole
- University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | | | - Marc K Jenkins
- University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Bruce Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Rivera A. Protective immune responses to fungal infections. Parasite Immunol 2014; 36:453-62. [DOI: 10.1111/pim.12098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Rivera
- Department of Pediatrics and Center for Immunity and Inflammation; Rutgers; Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences; New Jersey Medical School; Newark NJ USA
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Hung CY, Jiménez-Alzate MDP, Gonzalez A, Wüthrich M, Klein BS, Cole GT. Interleukin-1 receptor but not Toll-like receptor 2 is essential for MyD88-dependent Th17 immunity to Coccidioides infection. Infect Immun 2014; 82:2106-14. [PMID: 24614655 PMCID: PMC3993447 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01579-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-17A (IL-17A)-producing CD4(+) T helper (Th17) cells have been shown to be essential for defense against pulmonary infection with Coccidioides species. However, we have just begun to identify the required pattern recognition receptors and understand the signal pathways that lead to Th17 cell activation after fungal infection. We previously reported that Card9(-/-) mice vaccinated with formalin-killed spherules failed to acquire resistance to Coccidioides infection. Here, we report that both MyD88(-/-) and Card9(-/-) mice immunized with a live, attenuated vaccine also fail to acquire protective immunity to this respiratory disease. Like Card9(-/-) mice, vaccinated MyD88(-/-) mice revealed a significant reduction in numbers of both Th17 and Th1 cells in their lungs after Coccidioides infection. Both Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and IL-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1r1) upstream of MyD88 have been implicated in Th17 cell differentiation. Surprisingly, vaccinated TLR2(-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice showed similar outcomes after pulmonary infection with Coccidioides, while vaccinated IL-1r1(-/-) mice revealed a significant reduction in the number of Th17 cells in their infected lungs compared to WT mice. Thus, activation of both IL-1r1/MyD88- and Card9-mediated Th17 immunity is essential for protection against Coccidioides infection. Our data also reveal that the numbers of Th17 cells were reduced in IL-1r1(-/-) mice to a lesser extent than in MyD88(-/-) mice, raising the possibility that other TLRs are involved in MyD88-dependent Th17 immunity to coccidioidomycosis. An antimicrobial action of Th17 cells is to promote early recruitment of neutrophils to infection sites. Our data revealed that neutrophils are required for vaccine immunity to this respiratory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Yu Hung
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - María del Pilar Jiménez-Alzate
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Angel Gonzalez
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Bruce S. Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Garry T. Cole
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, USA
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Hohl TM. Overview of vertebrate animal models of fungal infection. J Immunol Methods 2014; 410:100-12. [PMID: 24709390 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2014.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Fungi represent emerging infectious threats to human populations worldwide. Mice and other laboratory animals have proved invaluable in modeling clinical syndromes associated with superficial and life-threatening invasive mycoses. This review outlines salient features of common vertebrate animal model systems to study fungal pathogenesis, host antifungal immune responses, and antifungal compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias M Hohl
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Service, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Box 9, New York, NY 10075, United States.
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Bayes HK, Bicknell S, MacGregor G, Evans TJ. T helper cell subsets specific for Pseudomonas aeruginosa in healthy individuals and patients with cystic fibrosis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90263. [PMID: 24587305 PMCID: PMC3937364 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background We set out to determine the magnitude of antigen-specific memory T helper cell responses to Pseudomonas aeruginosa in healthy humans and patients with cystic fibrosis. Methods Peripheral blood human memory CD4+ T cells were co-cultured with dendritic cells that had been infected with different strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The T helper response was determined by measuring proliferation, immunoassay of cytokine output, and immunostaining of intracellular cytokines. Results Healthy individuals and patients with cystic fibrosis had robust antigen-specific memory CD4+ T cell responses to Pseudomonas aeruginosa that not only contained a Th1 and Th17 component but also Th22 cells. In contrast to previous descriptions of human Th22 cells, these Pseudomonal-specific Th22 cells lacked the skin homing markers CCR4 or CCR10, although were CCR6+. Healthy individuals and patients with cystic fibrosis had similar levels of Th22 cells, but the patient group had significantly fewer Th17 cells in peripheral blood. Conclusions Th22 cells specific to Pseudomonas aeruginosa are induced in both healthy individuals and patients with cystic fibrosis. Along with Th17 cells, they may play an important role in the pulmonary response to this microbe in patients with cystic fibrosis and other conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah K. Bayes
- Institute of Infection, Immunology and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Bicknell
- West of Scotland Cystic Fibrosis Centre, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Gordon MacGregor
- West of Scotland Cystic Fibrosis Centre, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Tom J. Evans
- Institute of Infection, Immunology and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Wang H, LeBert V, Hung CY, Galles K, Saijo S, Lin X, Cole GT, Klein BS, Wüthrich M. C-type lectin receptors differentially induce th17 cells and vaccine immunity to the endemic mycosis of North America. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:1107-1119. [PMID: 24391211 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Vaccine immunity to the endemic mycoses of North America requires Th17 cells, but the pattern recognition receptors and signaling pathways that drive these protective responses have not been defined. We show that C-type lectin receptors exert divergent contributions to the development of antifungal Th17 cells and vaccine resistance against Blastomyces dermatitidis, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Coccidioides posadasii. Acquired immunity to B. dermatitidis requires Dectin-2, whereas vaccination against H. capsulatum and C. posadasii infection depends on innate sensing by Dectin-1 and Dectin-2, but not Mincle. Tracking Ag-specific T cells in vivo established that the Card9 signaling pathway acts indispensably and exclusively on differentiation of Th17 cells, while leaving intact their activation, proliferation, survival, and migration. Whereas Card9 signaling is essential, C-type lectin receptors offer distinct and divergent contributions to vaccine immunity against these endemic fungal pathogens. Our work provides new insight into innate immune mechanisms that drive vaccine immunity and Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huafeng Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792
| | - Vanessa LeBert
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792
| | - Chiung Yu Hung
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Kevin Galles
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792
| | - Shinobu Saijo
- Center for Experimental Medicine and Systems Biology, University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Xin Lin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Garry T Cole
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at San Antonio, Texas
| | - Bruce S Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792
| | - Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI, 53792
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25
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Brandhorst TT, Roy R, Wüthrich M, Nanjappa S, Filutowicz H, Galles K, Tonelli M, McCaslin DR, Satyshur K, Klein B. Structure and function of a fungal adhesin that binds heparin and mimics thrombospondin-1 by blocking T cell activation and effector function. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003464. [PMID: 23853587 PMCID: PMC3708853 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Blastomyces adhesin-1 (BAD-1) is a 120-kD surface protein on B. dermatitidis yeast. We show here that BAD-1 contains 41 tandem repeats and that deleting even half of them impairs fungal pathogenicity. According to NMR, the repeats form tightly folded 17-amino acid loops constrained by a disulfide bond linking conserved cysteines. Each loop contains a highly conserved WxxWxxW motif found in thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) type 1 heparin-binding repeats. BAD-1 binds heparin specifically and saturably, and is competitively inhibited by soluble heparin, but not related glycosaminoglycans. According to SPR analysis, the affinity of BAD-1 for heparin is 33 nM±14 nM. Putative heparin-binding motifs are found both at the N-terminus and within each tandem repeat loop. Like TSP-1, BAD-1 blocks activation of T cells in a manner requiring the heparan sulfate-modified surface molecule CD47, and impairs effector functions. The tandem repeats of BAD-1 thus confer pathogenicity, harbor motifs that bind heparin, and suppress T-cell activation via a CD47-dependent mechanism, mimicking mammalian TSP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Tristan Brandhorst
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - René Roy
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Training Program, College of Agriculture and Life Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Som Nanjappa
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Hanna Filutowicz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Kevin Galles
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Marco Tonelli
- The Department of Biochemistry, The Biophysics Instrumentation Facility, College of Agriculture and Life Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Darrell R. McCaslin
- The Department of Biochemistry, The Biophysics Instrumentation Facility, College of Agriculture and Life Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Kenneth Satyshur
- The Department of Bacteriology, The College of Agriculture and Life Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Bruce Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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Abstract
Evidence has increasingly shown that the lungs are a major site of immune regulation. A robust and highly regulated immune response in the lung protects the host from pathogen infection, whereas an inefficient or deleterious response can lead to various pulmonary diseases. Many cell types, such as epithelial cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, and B and T lymphocytes, contribute to lung immunity. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding how T lymphocytes mediate pulmonary host defenses against bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kong Chen
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15201, USA
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Wüthrich M, LeBert V, Galles K, Hu-Li J, Ben-Sasson SZ, Paul WE, Klein BS. Interleukin 1 enhances vaccine-induced antifungal T-helper 17 cells and resistance against Blastomyces dermatitidis infection. J Infect Dis 2013; 208:1175-82. [PMID: 23788728 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccine-induced T-helper 17 (Th17) cells are necessary and sufficient to protect against fungal infection. Although live fungal vaccines are efficient in driving protective Th17 responses and immunity, attenuated fungi may not be safe for human use. Heat-inactivated formulations and subunit vaccines are safer but less potent and require adjuvant to increase their efficacy. Here, we show that interleukin 1 (IL-1) enhances the capacity of weak vaccines to induce protection against lethal Blastomyces dermatitidis infection in mice and is far more effective than lipopolysaccharide. While IL-1 enhanced expansion and differentiation of fungus-specific T cells by direct action on those cells, cooperation with non-T cells expressing IL-1R1 was necessary to maximize protection. Mechanistically, IL-17 receptor signaling was required for the enhanced protection induced by IL-1. Thus, IL-1 enhances the efficacy of safe but inefficient vaccines against systemic fungal infection in part by increasing the expansion of CD4(+) T cells, allowing their entry into the lungs, and inducing their differentiation to protective Th17 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Cole GT, Hurtgen BJ, Hung CY. Progress Toward a Human Vaccine Against Coccidioidomycosis. CURRENT FUNGAL INFECTION REPORTS 2012; 6:235-244. [PMID: 23585916 DOI: 10.1007/s12281-012-0105-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Coccidioidomycosis (San Joaquin Valley fever) is a human respiratory disease caused by a soil-borne mold, and is recognized as an intransigent microbial infection by physicians who treat patients with the potentially life-threatening, disseminated form of this mycosis. Epidemiological studies based on surveys of skin-test reactivity of people who reside in the endemic regions of the Southwestern US have shown that at least 150,000 new infections occur annually. The clinical spectrum of coccidioidomycosis ranges from an asymptomatic insult to a severe pulmonary disease in which the pathogen may spread from the lungs to the skin, bones, brain and other body organs. Escalation of symptomatic infections and increased cost of long-term antifungal treatment warrant a concerted effort to develop a vaccine against coccidioidomycosis. This review examines recently reported strategies used to generate such a vaccine and summarizes current understanding of the nature of protective immunity to this formidable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garry T Cole
- Department of Biology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases (STCEID), University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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Construction and evaluation of a novel recombinant T cell epitope-based vaccine against Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun 2012; 80:3960-74. [PMID: 22949556 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00566-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical and animal studies of coccidioidomycosis have demonstrated that activated CD4(+) T lymphocytes are essential for protection against this fungal respiratory disease. We previously reported a vaccine against Coccidioides infection which contained three recombinant CD4(+) T cell-reactive proteins and induced a robust, protective immune response in mice. Due to the anticipated high cost of production and clinical assessment of this multivalent vaccine, we generated a single protein which contained immunodominant T cell epitopes of the three polypeptides. Epitopes were initially identified by computational prediction of their ability to bind promiscuously to human major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) molecules. Cellular immunoassays confirmed the immunogenicity of the synthesized epitope peptides, while in vitro binding assays revealed a range of peptide affinity for MHC II. A DNA construct was synthesized for bacterial expression of a recombinant protein vaccine which contained five epitopes with the highest affinity for human MHC II, each fused with leader and spacer peptides proposed to optimize epitope processing and presentation to T cell receptors. Recall assays of immune T lymphocytes obtained from human MHC II-expressing HLA-DR4 transgenic mice confirmed that 4 of the 5 epitope peptides were processed. Mice immunized with the epitope-based vaccine admixed with a synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide adjuvant or loaded into yeast glucan particles and then challenged intranasally with Coccidioides showed early lung infiltration of activated T helper-1 (Th1), Th2, and Th17 cells, elevated gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and interleukin (IL)-17 production, significant reduction of fungal burden, and prolongation of survival compared to nonvaccinated mice. This is the first report of an epitope-based vaccine against coccidioidomycosis.
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30
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Hamad M. Universal fungal vaccines: could there be light at the end of the tunnel? Hum Vaccin Immunother 2012; 8:1758-63. [PMID: 22922769 DOI: 10.4161/hv.21838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex nature of fungal pathogens, the intricate host-pathogen relationship and the health status of subjects in need of antifungal vaccination continue to hamper efforts to develop fungal vaccines for clinical use. That said, the rise of the universal vaccine concept is hoped to revive fungal vaccine research by expanding the pool of vaccine candidates worthy of clinical evaluation. It can do so through antigenic commonality-based screening for vaccine candidates from a wide range of pathogens and by reassessing the sizable collection of already available experimental and approved vaccines. Development of experimental vaccines protective against multiple fungal pathogens is evidence of the utility of this concept in fungal vaccine research. However, universal fungal vaccines are not without difficulties; for instance, development of vaccines with differential effectiveness is an issue that should be addressed. Additionally, rationalizing the development of universal fungal vaccines on health or economic basis could be contentious. Herein, universal fungal vaccines are discussed in terms of their potential usefulness and possible drawbacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mawieh Hamad
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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LeibundGut-Landmann S, Wüthrich M, Hohl TM. Immunity to fungi. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:449-58. [PMID: 22613091 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The global increase in fungal disease burden, the emergence of novel pathogenic fungi, and the lack of fungal vaccines have focused intense interest in elucidating immune defense mechanisms against fungi. Recent studies in animal models and in humans identify an integrated role for C-type lectin and Toll-like receptor signaling in activating innate and adaptive responses that control medically relevant fungi. Beyond the critical role of phagocytes in host defense, the generation and balance of specific T helper subsets contributes to sterilizing immunity. These advances form a basis for the development of fungal vaccines and immune-based therapeutic adjuncts.
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De Luca A, Iannitti RG, Bozza S, Beau R, Casagrande A, D'Angelo C, Moretti S, Cunha C, Giovannini G, Massi-Benedetti C, Carvalho A, Boon L, Latgé JP, Romani L. CD4(+) T cell vaccination overcomes defective cross-presentation of fungal antigens in a mouse model of chronic granulomatous disease. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:1816-31. [PMID: 22523066 DOI: 10.1172/jci60862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is a model fungal pathogen and a common cause of infection in individuals with the primary immunodeficiency chronic granulomatous disease (CGD). Although primarily considered a deficiency of innate immunity, CGD is also linked to dysfunctional T cell reactivity. Both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells mediate vaccine-induced protection from experimental aspergillosis, but the molecular mechanisms leading to the generation of protective immunity and whether these mechanisms are dysregulated in individuals with CGD have not been determined. Here, we show that activation of either T cell subset in a mouse model of CGD is contingent upon the nature of the fungal vaccine, the involvement of distinct innate receptor signaling pathways, and the mode of antigen routing and presentation in DCs. Aspergillus conidia activated CD8(+) T cells upon sorting to the Rab14(+) endosomal compartment required for alternative MHC class I presentation. Cross-priming of CD8(+) T cells failed to occur in mice with CGD due to defective DC endosomal alkalinization and autophagy. However, long-lasting antifungal protection and disease control were successfully achieved upon vaccination with purified fungal antigens that activated CD4(+) T cells through the endosome/lysosome pathway. Our study thus indicates that distinct intracellular pathways are exploited for the priming of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells to A. fumigatus and suggests that CD4(+) T cell vaccination may be able to overcome defective antifungal CD8(+) T cell memory in individuals with CGD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella De Luca
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Biochemical Sciences, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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Wüthrich M, Ersland K, Sullivan T, Galles K, Klein BS. Fungi subvert vaccine T cell priming at the respiratory mucosa by preventing chemokine-induced influx of inflammatory monocytes. Immunity 2012; 36:680-92. [PMID: 22483803 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Revised: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Vaccinologists strive to harness immunity at mucosal sites of pathogen entry. We studied respiratory delivery of an attenuated vaccine against Blastomyces dermatitidis. We created a T cell receptor transgenic mouse responsive to vaccine yeast and found that mucosal vaccination led to poor T cell activation in the draining nodes and differentiation in the lung. Mucosal vaccination subverted lung T cell priming by inducing matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), which impaired the action of the chemokine CCL7 on egress of CCR2(+) Ly6C(hi) inflammatory monocytes from the bone marrow and their recruitment to the lung. Studies in Mmp2(-/-) mice, or treatment with MMP inhibitor or rCCL7, restored recruitment of Ly6C(hi) monocytes to the lung and CD4(+) T cell priming. Mucosal vaccination against fungi and perhaps other respiratory pathogens may require manipulation of host MMPs in order to alter chemokine signals needed to recruit Ly6C(hi) monocytes and prime T cells at the respiratory mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53792, USA.
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Th17 cells mediate clade-specific, serotype-independent mucosal immunity. Immunity 2012; 35:997-1009. [PMID: 22195749 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 09/21/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The interleukin-17 (IL-17) family of cytokines phylogenetically predates the evolution of T cells in jawed vertebrates, suggesting that the ontogeny of the Th17 cell lineage must have arisen to confer an evolutionary advantage to the host over innate sources of IL-17. Utilizing a model of mucosal immunization with the encapsulated bacteria Klebsiella pneumoniae, we found that B cells, which largely recognized polysaccharide capsular antigens, afforded protection to only the vaccine strain. In contrast, memory Th17 cells proliferated in response to conserved outer membrane proteins and conferred protection against several serotypes of K. pneumoniae, including the recently described multidrug resistant New Dehli metallolactamase strain. Notably, this heterologous, clade-specific protection was antibody independent, demonstrating the Th17 cell lineage confers a host advantage by providing heterologous mucosal immunity independent of serotype-specific antibody.
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Abstract
Only a handful of the more than 100,000 fungal species on our planet cause disease in humans, yet the number of life-threatening fungal infections in patients has recently skyrocketed as a result of advances in medical care that often suppress immunity intensely. This emerging crisis has created pressing needs to clarify immune defense mechanisms against fungi, with the ultimate goal of therapeutic applications. Herein, we describe recent insights in understanding the mammalian immune defenses deployed against pathogenic fungi. The review focuses on adaptive immune responses to the major medically important fungi and emphasizes how dendritic cells and subsets in various anatomic compartments respond to fungi, recognize their molecular patterns, and signal responses that nurture and shape the differentiation of T cell subsets and B cells. Also emphasized is how the latter deploy effector and regulatory mechanisms that eliminate these nasty invaders while also constraining collateral damage to vital tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin 53792, USA.
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Espinosa V, Rivera A. Cytokines and the regulation of fungus-specific CD4 T cell differentiation. Cytokine 2011; 58:100-6. [PMID: 22133343 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2011.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
CD4 T cells play important and non-redundant roles in protection against infection with diverse fungi. Distinct CD4 T cell subsets can mediate protection against fungal disease where Th1 and Th17 CD4 T cell subsets have been found to promote fungal clearance and protective immunity against diverse fungal pathogens. The differentiation of naïve CD4 T cells into Th1 or Th17 cells is crucially controlled by their interaction with dendritic cells and instructed by cytokines. IL-12 and IFN-γ promote Th1 differentiation while TGF-β, IL-6, IL-1, IL-21 and IL-23 promote Th17 differentiation and maintenance. The production of these cytokines by DCs is in turn regulated by innate receptors triggered in response to fungal infection. In this review we will discuss the contributions of cytokines found to influence fungus-specific CD4 T cell differentiation and their role in defense against fungal disease. We will also highlight the contributions of innate receptors involved in recognition of fungi and how they shape cytokine secretion and CD4 T cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Espinosa
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, 185 So Orange Avenue, MSB-F601, Newark, NJ 07101, USA.
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Limited model antigen expression by transgenic fungi induces disparate fates during differentiation of adoptively transferred T cell receptor transgenic CD4+ T cells: robust activation and proliferation with weak effector function during recall. Infect Immun 2011; 80:787-97. [PMID: 22124658 DOI: 10.1128/iai.05326-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells are the key players of vaccine resistance to fungi. The generation of effective T cell-based vaccines requires an understanding of how to induce and maintain CD4(+) T cells and memory. The kinetics of fungal antigen (Ag)-specific CD4(+) T cell memory development has not been studied due to the lack of any known protective epitopes and clonally restricted T cell subsets with complementary T cell receptors (TCRs). Here, we investigated the expansion and function of CD4(+) T cell memory after vaccination with transgenic (Tg) Blastomyces dermatitidis yeasts that display a model Ag, Eα-mCherry (Eα-mCh). We report that Tg yeast led to Eα display on Ag-presenting cells and induced robust activation, proliferation, and expansion of adoptively transferred TEa cells in an Ag-specific manner. Despite robust priming by Eα-mCh yeast, antifungal TEa cells recruited and produced cytokines weakly during a recall response to the lung. The addition of exogenous Eα-red fluorescent protein (RFP) to the Eα-mCh yeast boosted the number of cytokine-producing TEa cells that migrated to the lung. Thus, model epitope expression on yeast enables the interrogation of Ag presentation to CD4(+) T cells and primes Ag-specific T cell activation, proliferation, and expansion. However, the limited availability of model Ag expressed by Tg fungi during T cell priming blunts the downstream generation of effector and memory T cells.
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