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Structural and dynamic properties of eutectic mixtures based on menthol and fatty acids derived from coconut oil: a MD simulation study. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5153. [PMID: 35338215 PMCID: PMC8956646 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09185-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The structural and dynamical properties of the binary mixture of Menthol (MEN) and Fatty acids (FAs) were investigated using molecular dynamics simulations. To this end, the relationship between the structural and dynamical properties of the eutectic mixtures of MEN and FAs with different molar percentages of FAs are studied. Structural properties of the eutectic mixtures were characterized by calculating the combined distribution functions (CDFs), radial distribution functions (RDFs), angular distribution functions (ADFs), hydrogen bonding networks, and spatial distribution functions (SDF). Additionally, our Results indicated robust interactions between menthol and Caprylic acid molecules Finally, the transport properties of the mixtures were investigated using the mean square displacement (MSD) of the centers of mass of the species, self-diffusion coefficients and vector reorientation dynamics (VRD) of bonds. Overall, our simulation results indicated that intermolecular interactions have a significant effect on the dynamic properties of species.
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2
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Richmond BW, Mansouri S, Serezani A, Novitskiy S, Blackburn JB, Du RH, Fuseini H, Gutor S, Han W, Schaff J, Vasiukov G, Xin MK, Newcomb DC, Jin L, Blackwell TS, Polosukhin VV. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells link localized secretory IgA deficiency to adaptive immune activation in COPD. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14:431-442. [PMID: 32968197 PMCID: PMC7946625 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-020-00344-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Although activation of adaptive immunity is a common pathological feature of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), particularly during later stages of the disease, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In small airways of COPD patients, we found that localized disruption of the secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA)-containing mucosal immunobarrier correlated with lymphocyte accumulation in airway walls and development of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) around small airways. In SIgA-deficient mice, we observed bacterial invasion into the airway epithelial barrier with lymphocytic infiltration and TLS formation, which correlated with the progression of COPD-like pathology with advanced age. Depletion of either CD4+ or CD8+ T lymphocytes reduced the severity of emphysema in SIgA-deficient mice, indicating that adaptive immune activation contributes to progressive lung destruction. Further studies revealed that lymphocyte infiltration into the lungs of SIgA-deficient mice was dependent on monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs), which were recruited through a CCR2-dependent mechanism in response to airway bacteria. Consistent with these results, we found that moDCs were increased in lungs of COPD patients, along with CD4+ and CD8+ effector memory T cells. Together, these data indicate that endogenous bacteria in SIgA-deficient airways orchestrate a persistent and pathologic T lymphocyte response through monocyte recruitment and moDC differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley W. Richmond
- grid.413806.8Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nashville, TN USA ,grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Samira Mansouri
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Ana Serezani
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Sergey Novitskiy
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Jessica B. Blackburn
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Rui-Hong Du
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Hubaida Fuseini
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Sergey Gutor
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Wei Han
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Jacob Schaff
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Georgii Vasiukov
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Matthew K. Xin
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Dawn C. Newcomb
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Lei Jin
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Timothy S. Blackwell
- grid.413806.8Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nashville, TN USA ,grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Vasiliy V. Polosukhin
- grid.152326.10000 0001 2264 7217Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN USA
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3
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Lämmermann T, Kastenmüller W. Concepts of GPCR-controlled navigation in the immune system. Immunol Rev 2020; 289:205-231. [PMID: 30977203 PMCID: PMC6487968 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
G‐protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling is essential for the spatiotemporal control of leukocyte dynamics during immune responses. For efficient navigation through mammalian tissues, most leukocyte types express more than one GPCR on their surface and sense a wide range of chemokines and chemoattractants, leading to basic forms of leukocyte movement (chemokinesis, haptokinesis, chemotaxis, haptotaxis, and chemorepulsion). How leukocytes integrate multiple GPCR signals and make directional decisions in lymphoid and inflamed tissues is still subject of intense research. Many of our concepts on GPCR‐controlled leukocyte navigation in the presence of multiple GPCR signals derive from in vitro chemotaxis studies and lower vertebrates. In this review, we refer to these concepts and critically contemplate their relevance for the directional movement of several leukocyte subsets (neutrophils, T cells, and dendritic cells) in the complexity of mouse tissues. We discuss how leukocyte navigation can be regulated at the level of only a single GPCR (surface expression, competitive antagonism, oligomerization, homologous desensitization, and receptor internalization) or multiple GPCRs (synergy, hierarchical and non‐hierarchical competition, sequential signaling, heterologous desensitization, and agonist scavenging). In particular, we will highlight recent advances in understanding GPCR‐controlled leukocyte navigation by intravital microscopy of immune cells in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Lämmermann
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany
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4
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McEntee CP, Gunaltay S, Travis MA. Regulation of barrier immunity and homeostasis by integrin-mediated transforming growth factor β activation. Immunology 2019; 160:139-148. [PMID: 31792952 PMCID: PMC7218408 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor β (TGF‐β) is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, migration and death dependent on cell type, developmental stage, or tissue conditions. Various cell types secrete TGF‐β, but always as an inactive complex. Hence, for TGF‐β to function, this latent complex must somehow be activated. Work in recent years has highlighted a critical role for members of the αv integrin family, including αvβ1, αvβ3, αvβ5, αvβ6 and αvβ8 that are involved in TGF‐β activation in various contexts, particularly at barrier sites such as the gut, lung and skin. The integrins facilitating this context‐ and location‐specific regulation can be dysregulated in certain diseases, so are potential therapeutic targets in a number of disorders. In this review, we discuss the role of TGF‐β at these barrier sites with a focus on how integrin‐mediated TGF‐β activation regulates tissue and immune homeostasis, and how this is altered in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig P McEntee
- Lydia Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, Manchester, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Manchester, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Collaborative Centre for Inflammation Research (MCCIR), Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Sezin Gunaltay
- Lydia Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, Manchester, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Manchester, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Collaborative Centre for Inflammation Research (MCCIR), Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Mark A Travis
- Lydia Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, Manchester, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Manchester, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Collaborative Centre for Inflammation Research (MCCIR), Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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5
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Horwitz DA, Fahmy TM, Piccirillo CA, La Cava A. Rebalancing Immune Homeostasis to Treat Autoimmune Diseases. Trends Immunol 2019; 40:888-908. [PMID: 31601519 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
During homeostasis, interactions between tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs), self-reactive T cells, and T regulatory cells (Tregs) contribute to maintaining mammalian immune tolerance. In response to infection, immunogenic DCs promote the generation of proinflammatory effector T cell subsets. When complex homeostatic mechanisms maintaining the balance between regulatory and effector functions become impaired, autoimmune diseases can develop. We discuss some of the newest advances on the mechanisms of physiopathologic homeostasis that can be employed to develop strategies to restore a dysregulated immune equilibrium. Some of these designs are based on selectively activating regulators of immunity and inflammation instead of broadly suppressing these processes. Promising approaches include the use of nanoparticles (NPs) to restore Treg control over self-reactive cells, aiming to achieve long-term disease remission, and potentially to prevent autoimmunity in susceptible individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Horwitz
- General Nanotherapeutics, LLC, Santa Monica, CA, USA; Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Tarek M Fahmy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ciriaco A Piccirillo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada; Program in Infectious Disease and Immunity in Global Health, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada; Centre of Excellence in Translational Immunology (CETI), Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Antonio La Cava
- Department of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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6
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Seyed-Razavi Y, Lopez MJ, Mantopoulos D, Zheng L, Massberg S, Sendra VG, Harris DL, Hamrah P. Kinetics of corneal leukocytes by intravital multiphoton microscopy. FASEB J 2019; 33:2199-2211. [PMID: 30226811 PMCID: PMC6338630 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800684rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Corneal immune privilege is integral in maintaining the clear avascular window to the foreign world. The presence of distinct populations of corneal leukocytes (CLs) in the normal cornea has been firmly established. However, their precise function and kinetics remain, as of yet, unclear. Through intravital multiphoton microscopy (IV-MPM), allowing the means to accumulate critical spatial and temporal cellular information, we provide details for long-term investigation of CL morphology and kinetics under steady state and following inflammation. Significant alterations in size and morphology of corneal CD11c+ dendritic cells (DCs) were noted following acute sterile inflammation, including cell volume (4364.4 ± 489.6 vs. 1787.6 ± 111.0 μm3, P < 0.001) and sphericity (0.82 ± 0.01 vs. 0.42 ± 0.02, P < 0.001) compared with steady state. Furthermore, IV-MPM analyses revealed alterations in both the CD11c+ DC and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC)-II+ mature antigen-presenting cell population kinetics during inflammation, including track displacement length (CD11c: 16.57 ± 1.41 vs. 4.64 ± 0.56 μm, P < 0.001; MHC-II: 9.03 ± 0.37 vs. 4.09 ± 0.39, P < 0.001) and velocity (CD11c: 1.91 ± 0.07 μm/min vs. 1.73 ± 0.1302 μm/min; MHC-II: 2.97 ± 0.07 vs. 1.62 ± 0.08, P < 0.001) compared with steady state. Our results reveal in vivo evidence of sessile CL populations exhibiting dendritic morphology under steady state and increased velocity of spherical leukocytes following inflammation. IV-MPM represents a powerful tool to study leukocytes in corneal diseases in context.-Seyed-Razavi, Y., Lopez, M. J., Mantopoulos, D., Zheng, L., Massberg, S., Sendra, V. G., Harris, D. L., Hamrah, P. Kinetics of corneal leukocytes by intravital multiphoton microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashar Seyed-Razavi
- Center for Translational Ocular Immunology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maria J. Lopez
- Center for Translational Ocular Immunology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dimosthenis Mantopoulos
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lixin Zheng
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Steffen Massberg
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Cardiology, Ludwig Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Victor G. Sendra
- Center for Translational Ocular Immunology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Deshea L. Harris
- Center for Translational Ocular Immunology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Pedram Hamrah
- Center for Translational Ocular Immunology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Cornea Service, Tufts New England Eye Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Cornea Service, Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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7
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Reichart F, Maltsev OV, Kapp TG, Räder AFB, Weinmüller M, Marelli UK, Notni J, Wurzer A, Beck R, Wester HJ, Steiger K, Di Maro S, Di Leva FS, Marinelli L, Nieberler M, Reuning U, Schwaiger M, Kessler H. Selective Targeting of Integrin αvβ8 by a Highly Active Cyclic Peptide. J Med Chem 2019; 62:2024-2037. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Reichart
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Oleg V. Maltsev
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Tobias G. Kapp
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Andreas F. B. Räder
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Michael Weinmüller
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Udaya Kiran Marelli
- Central NMR Facility and Division of Organic Chemistry, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, 411008 Pune, India
| | - Johannes Notni
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Radiochemie, Technische Universität München, Walther-Meißner Straße 3, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Alexander Wurzer
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Radiochemie, Technische Universität München, Walther-Meißner Straße 3, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Roswitha Beck
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Radiochemie, Technische Universität München, Walther-Meißner Straße 3, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Wester
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Radiochemie, Technische Universität München, Walther-Meißner Straße 3, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Katja Steiger
- Department of Pathology, Technische Universität München, Trogerstraße 18, 81675 München, Germany
| | - Salvatore Di Maro
- DiSTABiF, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Francesco Saverio Di Leva
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Luciana Marinelli
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Markus Nieberler
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Hospital Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Ismaninger Straße 22, 81679 München, Germany
| | | | | | - Horst Kessler
- Institute for Advanced Study and Center of Integrated Protein Science (CIPSM), Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
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Takasaka N, Seed RI, Cormier A, Bondesson AJ, Lou J, Elattma A, Ito S, Yanagisawa H, Hashimoto M, Ma R, Levine MD, Publicover J, Potts R, Jespersen JM, Campbell MG, Conrad F, Marks JD, Cheng Y, Baron JL, Nishimura SL. Integrin αvβ8-expressing tumor cells evade host immunity by regulating TGF-β activation in immune cells. JCI Insight 2018; 3:122591. [PMID: 30333313 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.122591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
TGF-β is a promising immunotherapeutic target. It is expressed ubiquitously in a latent form that must be activated to function. Determination of where and how latent TGF-β (L-TGF-β) is activated in the tumor microenvironment could facilitate cell- and mechanism-specific approaches to immunotherapeutically target TGF-β. Binding of L-TGF-β to integrin αvβ8 results in activation of TGF-β. We engineered and used αvβ8 antibodies optimized for blocking or detection, which - respectively - inhibit tumor growth in syngeneic tumor models or sensitively and specifically detect β8 in human tumors. Inhibition of αvβ8 potentiates cytotoxic T cell responses and recruitment of immune cells to tumor centers - effects that are independent of PD-1/PD-L1. β8 is expressed on the cell surface at high levels by tumor cells, not immune cells, while the reverse is true of L-TGF-β, suggesting that tumor cell αvβ8 serves as a platform for activating cell-surface L-TGF-β presented by immune cells. Transcriptome analysis of tumor-associated lymphoid cells reveals macrophages as a key cell type responsive to β8 inhibition with major increases in chemokine and tumor-eliminating genes. High β8 expression in tumor cells is seen in 20%-80% of various cancers, which rarely coincides with high PD-L1 expression. These data suggest tumor cell αvβ8 is a PD-1/PD-L1-independent immunotherapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yifan Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, and.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCSF, San Francisco, California, USA
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Torre O, Elia D, Caminati A, Harari S. New insights in lymphangioleiomyomatosis and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Eur Respir Rev 2017; 26:26/145/170042. [PMID: 28954765 PMCID: PMC9488980 DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0042-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH) are rare diseases that lead to progressive cystic destruction of the lungs. Despite their distinctive characteristics, these diseases share several features. Patients affected by LAM or PLCH have similar radiological cystic patterns, a similar age of onset, and the possibility of extrapulmonary involvement. In this review, the recent advances in the understanding of the molecular pathogenesis, as well as the current and most promising biomarkers and therapeutic approaches, are described. Understanding of LAM/PLCH pathogenesis has improved over the past years, leading to new therapeutic approacheshttp://ow.ly/7wjR30erSJY
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Torre
- U.O. di Pneumologia e Terapia Semi-Intensiva Respiratoria, Servizio di Fisiopatologia Respiratoria ed Emodinamica Polmonare, Ospedale San Giuseppe, MultiMedica IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Elia
- U.O. di Pneumologia e Terapia Semi-Intensiva Respiratoria, Servizio di Fisiopatologia Respiratoria ed Emodinamica Polmonare, Ospedale San Giuseppe, MultiMedica IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Caminati
- U.O. di Pneumologia e Terapia Semi-Intensiva Respiratoria, Servizio di Fisiopatologia Respiratoria ed Emodinamica Polmonare, Ospedale San Giuseppe, MultiMedica IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Sergio Harari
- U.O. di Pneumologia e Terapia Semi-Intensiva Respiratoria, Servizio di Fisiopatologia Respiratoria ed Emodinamica Polmonare, Ospedale San Giuseppe, MultiMedica IRCCS, Milan, Italy
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10
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Lorillon G, Tazi A. How I manage pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Eur Respir Rev 2017; 26:26/145/170070. [PMID: 28877978 DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0070-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH) is a rare sporadic cystic lung disease of unknown aetiology that is characterised by the infiltration and destruction of the wall of distal bronchioles by CD1a+ Langerhans-like cells. In adults, PLCH is frequently isolated and affects young smokers of both sexes. Recent multicentre studies have led to the more standardised management of patients in clinical practice. Smoking cessation is essential and is occasionally the only suitable intervention. Serial lung function testing is important because a significant proportion of patients may experience an early decline in forced expiratory volume in 1 s and develop airflow obstruction. Cladribine was reported to dramatically improve progressive PLCH in some patients. Its efficacy and tolerance are currently being evaluated. Patients who complain of unexplained dyspnoea with decreased diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide should be screened for pulmonary hypertension by Doppler echocardiography, which must be confirmed by right heart catheterisation. Lung transplantation is a therapeutic option for patients with advanced PLCH.The identification of the BRAFV600E mutation in approximately half of Langerhans cell histiocytosis lesions, including PLCH, and other mutations of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in a subset of lesions has led to targeted treatments (BRAF and MEK (MAPK kinase) inhibitors). These treatments need to be rigorously evaluated because of their potentially severe side-effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwenaël Lorillon
- National Reference Centre for Histiocytoses, Pulmonary Dept, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Abdellatif Tazi
- National Reference Centre for Histiocytoses, Pulmonary Dept, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France .,University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne, Paris Cité, Inserm UMR-1153 (CRESS), Biostatistics and Clinical Epidemiology Research Team (ECSTRA), Paris, France
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11
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Exploring the Role of RGD-Recognizing Integrins in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9090116. [PMID: 28869579 PMCID: PMC5615331 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9090116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Integrins are key regulators of communication between cells and with their microenvironment. Eight members of the integrin superfamily recognize the tripeptide motif Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) within extracelluar matrix (ECM) proteins. These integrins constitute an important subfamily and play a major role in cancer progression and metastasis via their tumor biological functions. Such transmembrane adhesion and signaling receptors are thus recognized as promising and well accessible targets for novel diagnostic and therapeutic applications for directly attacking cancer cells and their fatal microenvironment. Recently, specific small peptidic and peptidomimetic ligands as well as antibodies binding to distinct integrin subtypes have been developed and synthesized as new drug candidates for cancer treatment. Understanding the distinct functions and interplay of integrin subtypes is a prerequisite for selective intervention in integrin-mediated diseases. Integrin subtype-specific ligands labelled with radioisotopes or fluorescent molecules allows the characterization of the integrin patterns in vivo and later the medical intervention via subtype specific drugs. The coating of nanoparticles, larger proteins, or encapsulating agents by integrin ligands are being explored to guide cytotoxic reagents directly to the cancer cell surface. These ligands are currently under investigation in clinical studies for their efficacy in interference with tumor cell adhesion, migration/invasion, proliferation, signaling, and survival, opening new treatment approaches in personalized medicine.
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Mulligan JK, O’Connell BP, Pasquini W, Mulligan RM, Smith S, Soler ZM, Atkinson C, Schlosser RJ. Impact of tobacco smoke on upper airway dendritic cell accumulation and regulation by sinonasal epithelial cells. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2017; 7:777-785. [PMID: 28574651 PMCID: PMC5544557 DOI: 10.1002/alr.21955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In these studies we examined the impact of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and active smoking on sinonasal dendritic cell (DC) subsets in controls or patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP). In subsequent in-vitro investigations, we examined the influence of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on human sinonasal epithelial cells' (HSNECs) ability to regulate DC functions. METHODS Sinonasal tissue, blood, and hair were collected from patients undergoing sinus surgery. Smoking status and ETS exposure were determined by hair nicotine. DC subsets were examined by flow cytometric analysis. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) were treated with conditioned medium from non-smoked-exposed HSNECs (NS-HSNECs) or cigarette-smoke-extract-exposed HSNECs (CSE-HSNECs) to assess the impact of CSE exposure on HSNEC regulation of moDC functions. RESULTS Control subjects who were active smokers displayed increased sinonasal moDC and myeloid dendritic 1 (mDC1) cells and reduced mDC2 cells, whereas, in CRSwNP patients, only moDC and mDC2 cells were altered. ETS was found to increase only moDCs in the CRSwNP patients. In vitro, CSE stimulated HSNEC secretion of the moDC regulatory products chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20, prostaglandin E2 , and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. CSE exposure also promoted HSNECs to stimulate monocyte and moDC migration. moDCs treated with CSE-HSNEC media stimulated an increase in antigen uptake and expression of CD80 and CD86. Last, CSE-HSNEC-treated moDCs secreted increased levels of interleukin-10, interferon-γ, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin. CONCLUSION Active smoking, and to a lesser degree ETS, alters the sinonasal composition of DCs. A potential mechanism to account for this is that cigarette smoke stimulates HSNECs to induce moDC migration, maturation, and activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K. Mulligan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Brendan P. O’Connell
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Whitney Pasquini
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Ryan M. Mulligan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Sarah Smith
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Zachary M. Soler
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Carl Atkinson
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
- Department of Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Rodney J. Schlosser
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
- Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina
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Vassallo R, Harari S, Tazi A. Current understanding and management of pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Thorax 2017; 72:937-945. [PMID: 28689173 DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2017-210125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH) is a diffuse lung disease that usually affects young adult smokers. PLCH affects different lung compartments; bronchiolar, interstitial and pulmonary vascular dysfunction may coexist to varying extents, resulting in diverse phenotypes. Analyses of PLCH tissues have identified activating mutations of specific mitogen-activated protein kinases (BRAFV600E and others). The current consensus is that PLCH represents a myeloid neoplasm with inflammatory properties: the myeloid tumour cells exhibit surface CD1a expression and up to 50% of the cells harbour activating BRAF or other MAPK mutations. PLCH may be associated with multisystem disease. The detection of disease outside of the thorax is facilitated by whole body positron emission tomography. The natural history of PLCH is unpredictable. In some patients, disease may remit or stabilise following smoking cessation. Others develop progressive lung disease, often associated with evidence of airflow limitation and pulmonary vascular dysfunction. Due to the inability to accurately predict the natural history, it is important that all patients undergo longitudinal follow-up at least twice a year for the first few years following diagnosis. The treatment of PLCH is challenging and should be individualised. While there is no general consensus regarding the role of immunosuppression or chemotherapy in management, selected patients may experience improvement in lung function with therapy. Determination of BRAFV600E or other mutations may assist with the development of an individualised approach to therapy. Patients with progressive disease should be referred to specialised centres and considered for a trial of pharmacotherapy or evaluated for transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Vassallo
- Departments of Medicine, Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sergio Harari
- U.O. di Pneumologia e Terapia Semi-Intensiva Respiratoria "Servizio di Fisiopatologia Respiratoria ed Emodinamica Polmonare, Ospedale San Giuseppe" Multimedica IRCCS, Milano, Italy
| | - Abdellatif Tazi
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Saint-Louis Hospital, National Reference Center for Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis, University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite, Inserm UMR-1153 (CRESS), Biostatistics and Clinical Epidemiology Research Team (ECSTRA), Paris, Ile-de-France, France
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Freeman CM, Curtis JL. Lung Dendritic Cells: Shaping Immune Responses throughout Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Progression. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2017; 56:152-159. [PMID: 27767327 PMCID: PMC6222925 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2016-0272tr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallmarks of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include innate inflammation and remodeling of small airways, which begin in early disease, and the development of lung lymphoid follicles (LLF), indicative of adaptive immunity, in more spirometrically severe stages. Common to these processes in all stages is orchestration by dendritic cells (DCs). Recently improved understanding of the analogous lung DC subsets in humans and mice has allowed for better integration and interpretation of the experimental and clinical pathological literature. In this review, we summarize the evidence from human and animal studies to place lung DCs into the context of COPD pathogenesis. We highlight recent studies that demonstrate a potential role for DCs in airway remodeling and that call into question the long-standing belief that intraepithelial DCs actively sample airway lumens. We discuss how DCs drive LLF formation directly and indirectly and also examine the ability of DCs within LLF to instruct downstream effector functions of natural killer cells, CD4+ T cells, and regulatory T cells. Greater awareness of the multifaceted functions of DCs will be essential in the quest to identify new therapeutic modalities to treat COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Freeman
- Research Service, and
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Division, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, and
| | - Jeffrey L. Curtis
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Section, Medicine Service, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Division, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, and
- Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Yanagisawa H, Hashimoto M, Minagawa S, Takasaka N, Ma R, Moermans C, Ito S, Araya J, Budelsky A, Goodsell A, Baron JL, Nishimura SL. Role of IL-17A in murine models of COPD airway disease. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016; 312:L122-L130. [PMID: 27913421 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00301.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Small airway fibrosis is a major pathological feature of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is refractory to current treatments. Chronic inflammatory cells accumulate around small airways in COPD and are thought to play a major role in small airway fibrosis. Mice deficient in α/β T cells have recently been shown to be protected from both experimental airway inflammation and fibrosis. In these models, CD4+Th17 cells and secretion of IL-17A are increased. However, a pathogenic role for IL-17 in specifically mediating fibrosis around airways has not been demonstrated. Here a role for IL-17A in airway fibrosis was demonstrated using mice deficient in the IL-17 receptor A (il17ra) Il17ra-deficient mice were protected from both airway inflammation and fibrosis in two different models of airway fibrosis that employ COPD-relevant stimuli. In these models, CD4+ Th17 are a major source of IL-17A with other expressing cell types including γδ T cells, type 3 innate lymphoid cells, polymorphonuclear cells, and CD8+ T cells. Antibody neutralization of IL-17RA or IL-17A confirmed that IL-17A was the relevant pathogenic IL-17 isoform and IL-17RA was the relevant receptor in airway inflammation and fibrosis. These results demonstrate that the IL-17A/IL-17 RA axis is crucial to murine airway fibrosis. These findings suggest that IL-17 might be targeted to prevent the progression of airway fibrosis in COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruhiko Yanagisawa
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Mitsuo Hashimoto
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Shunsuke Minagawa
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Naoki Takasaka
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Royce Ma
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Catherine Moermans
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Saburo Ito
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Jun Araya
- Department of Internal Medicine, Respiratory Division, Jikei University, Tokyo, Japan; and
| | - Alison Budelsky
- Department of Inflammation Research, Amgen, Seattle, Washington
| | - Amanda Goodsell
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Jody L Baron
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Stephen L Nishimura
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, California;
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Worbs T, Hammerschmidt SI, Förster R. Dendritic cell migration in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2016; 17:30-48. [PMID: 27890914 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2016.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 519] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are potent and versatile antigen-presenting cells, and their ability to migrate is key for the initiation of protective pro-inflammatory as well as tolerogenic immune responses. Recent comprehensive studies have highlighted the importance of DC migration in the maintenance of immune surveillance and tissue homeostasis, and also in the pathogenesis of a range of diseases. In this Review, we summarize the anatomical, cellular and molecular factors that regulate the migration of different DC subsets in health and disease. In particular, we focus on new insights concerning the role of migratory DCs in the pathogenesis of diseases of the skin, intestine, lung, and brain, as well as in autoimmunity and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Worbs
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Swantje I Hammerschmidt
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Reinhold Förster
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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Givi ME, Folkerts G, Wagenaar GTM, Redegeld FA, Mortaz E. Cigarette smoke differentially modulates dendritic cell maturation and function in time. Respir Res 2015; 16:131. [PMID: 26498483 PMCID: PMC4619524 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-015-0291-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dendritic cells (DCs) as professional antigen presenting cells (APCs) play a critical role in the regulation of host immune responses. DCs evolve from immature, antigen-capturing cells, to mature antigen-presenting cells. The relative contribution of DCs to cigarette smoke-induced inflammation is not well documented. In the current study, we investigated a modulatory effect of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on differentiation, maturation and function of DCs. Methods Primary murine DCs were grown from bone marrow cells with GM-CSF. Development of DC was analyzed by expression of CD11c, MHCII, CD86, CD40 and CD83 using flow cytometry. Murine DC’s and human L428 cells were co-cultured with CSE for various periods of time. Functional activity was analyzed by measuring FITC-dextran uptake, cytokine production and the ability to stimulate T cell activation in a mixed lymphocyte reaction. Results Our results show that short-term CSE stimulation (~24 h) influence the maturation status of newly differentiated and immature DCs towards more mature cells as revealed by upregulation of MHCII, CD83, CD86, CD40, reduction in antigen up-take capacity and enhanced secretion of pro-inflammatory (IL-12, IL-6 and TNF-α) cytokines. Interestingly, long-term CSE exposure, time- and concentration-dependently, suppressed the development of functional DCs. This suppression was demonstrated by a decline in CD11c/MHCII, CD83, CD86 and CD40 expression, the production of cytokines and ability to stimulate T lymphocytes. Moreover, CSE significantly suppressed the endocytosis function of mouse DCs which was not due to diminished DC viability. Similar to mouse DCs, long-term co-culturing of the human L428 DC cell line with CSE time-dependently suppressed the expression of CD54. Conclusions The present study provides evidence that CSE modulates DC-mediated immune responses via affecting both the function and maturation of DCs. The suppressive effects of cigarette smoke on DC function might lead to impaired immune responses to various infections. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12931-015-0291-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoumeh Ezzati Givi
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80082, 3508, TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Gert Folkerts
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80082, 3508, TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gerry T M Wagenaar
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Frank A Redegeld
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80082, 3508, TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Esmaeil Mortaz
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80082, 3508, TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Chronic Respiratory Diseases Research Center and National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (NRITLD), Department of Immunology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Airways Disease Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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