1
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Sun SR, Yao Y, Liu Z. Effects of allergen immunotherapy on follicular regulatory T cells. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2023; 23:507-513. [PMID: 37712561 DOI: 10.1097/aci.0000000000000944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Emerging evidence indicating that the dysfunction of T follicular regulatory (T FR ) cells contributes to excessive immunoglobulin E (IgE) production and the development of allergic diseases. Conversely, allergen immunotherapy (AIT) modulates T FR cells abundance and function to promote immune tolerance. This review focus on the role of T FR cells in allergic diseases and AIT, with the objective of providing novel insights into the mechanisms underlying immune tolerance of AIT and proposing the potential targeting of T FR cells in the context of allergic diseases. RECENT FINDINGS Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that T FR cells play a pivotal role in the inhibition of class switch recombination to IgE in both humans and specific murine models. This suppression is attributed to the actions of neuritin and IL-10 secreted by T FR cells, which exert direct and indirect effects on B cells. In patients with allergic rhinitis, reduced frequencies of circulating or tonsillar T FR cells have been reported, along with impaired functionality in suppressing IgE production. AIT, whether administered subcutaneously or sublingually, reinstates the frequency and functionality of T FR cells in allergic rhinitis patients, accompanied by changes of the chromatin accessibility of T FR cells. The increase in T FR cell frequency following AIT is associated with the amelioration of clinical symptoms. SUMMARY T FR cells exert an inhibitory effect on IgE production and demonstrate a correlation with the clinical efficacy of AIT in patients with allergic rhinitis, suggesting T FR cells hold promise as a therapeutic target for allergic diseases and potential biomarker for AIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Ran Sun
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
| | - Yin Yao
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Clinical Research Center for Nasal Inflammatory Diseases
- Institute of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Clinical Research Center for Nasal Inflammatory Diseases
- Institute of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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2
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Garg AK, Mitra T, Schips M, Bandyopadhyay A, Meyer-Hermann M. Amount of antigen, T follicular helper cells and affinity of founder cells shape the diversity of germinal center B cells: A computational study. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1080853. [PMID: 36993964 PMCID: PMC10042134 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1080853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of B cell clones seed the germinal centers, where a selection stringency expands the fitter clones to generate higher affinity antibodies. However, recent experiments suggest that germinal centers often retain a diverse set of B cell clones with a range of affinities and concurrently carry out affinity maturation. Amid a tendency to flourish germinal centers with fitter clones, how several B cell clones with differing affinities can be concurrently selected remains poorly understood. Such a permissive selection may allow non-immunodominant clones, which are often rare and of low-affinity, to somatically hypermutate and result in a broad and diverse B cell response. How the constituent elements of germinal centers, their quantity and kinetics may modulate diversity of B cells, has not been addressed well. By implementing a state-of-the-art agent-based model of germinal center, here, we study how these factors impact temporal evolution of B cell clonal diversity and its underlying balance with affinity maturation. While we find that the extent of selection stringency dictates clonal dominance, limited antigen availability on follicular dendritic cells is shown to expedite the loss of diversity of B cells as germinal centers mature. Intriguingly, the emergence of a diverse set of germinal center B cells depends on high affinity founder cells. Our analysis also reveals a substantial number of T follicular helper cells to be essential in balancing affinity maturation with clonal diversity, as a low number of T follicular helper cells impedes affinity maturation and also contracts the scope for a diverse B cell response. Our results have implications for eliciting antibody responses to non-immunodominant specificities of the pathogens by controlling the regulators of the germinal center reaction, thereby pivoting a way for vaccine development to generate broadly protective antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amar K. Garg
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Tanmay Mitra
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- *Correspondence: Tanmay Mitra, ; Michael Meyer-Hermann,
| | - Marta Schips
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Arnab Bandyopadhyay
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Meyer-Hermann
- Department of Systems Immunology and Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
- *Correspondence: Tanmay Mitra, ; Michael Meyer-Hermann,
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3
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Betzler AC, Ushmorov A, Brunner C. The transcriptional program during germinal center reaction - a close view at GC B cells, Tfh cells and Tfr cells. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1125503. [PMID: 36817488 PMCID: PMC9936310 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1125503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The germinal center (GC) reaction is a key process during an adaptive immune response to T cell specific antigens. GCs are specialized structures within secondary lymphoid organs, in which B cell proliferation, somatic hypermutation and antibody affinity maturation occur. As a result, high affinity antibody secreting plasma cells and memory B cells are generated. An effective GC response needs interaction between multiple cell types. Besides reticular cells and follicular dendritic cells, particularly B cells, T follicular helper (Tfh) cells as well as T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells are a key player during the GC reaction. Whereas Tfh cells provide help to GC B cells in selection processes, Tfr cells, a specialized subset of regulatory T cells (Tregs), are able to suppress the GC reaction maintaining the balance between immune activation and tolerance. The formation and function of GCs is regulated by a complex network of signals and molecules at multiple levels. In this review, we highlight recent developments in GC biology by focusing on the transcriptional program regulating the GC reaction. This review focuses on the transcriptional co-activator BOB.1/OBF.1, whose important role for GC B, Tfh and Tfr cell differentiation became increasingly clear in recent years. Moreover, we outline how deregulation of the GC transcriptional program can drive lymphomagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika C. Betzler
- Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Alexey Ushmorov
- Ulm University, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm, Germany
| | - Cornelia Brunner
- Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany,*Correspondence: Cornelia Brunner,
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Zhang H, Cavazzoni CB, Hanson BL, Bechu ED, Podestà MA, Azzi J, Blazar BR, Chong AS, Kreisel D, Alessandrini A, Sage PT. Transcriptionally Distinct B Cells Infiltrate Allografts After Kidney Transplantation. Transplantation 2023; 107:e47-e57. [PMID: 36398326 PMCID: PMC9877106 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000004398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Following allogeneic kidney transplantation, a substantial proportion of graft loss is attributed to the formation of donor-specific antibodies and antibody-mediated rejection. B cells infiltrate kidney grafts during antibody-mediated rejection; however, the origins, repertoires, and functions of these intrarenal B cells remain elusive. METHODS Here, we use murine allogeneic kidney transplant models to study the origins, transcriptional programming and B cell receptor repertoire of intragraft B cells, and in vitro stimulation assays to evaluate the ability of intragraft B cells to promote CD4+ T cell expansion. RESULTS B cells infiltrate kidney grafts in settings of allogeneic, but not syngeneic, transplantation. Intragraft B cells have characteristics of activation but are transcriptionally distinct from germinal center B cells and resemble innate-like B cells. B cell receptor sequencing demonstrates that the majority of intragraft B cells do not originate from lymph node germinal center B cells and are largely germline. Class-switched intragraft B cells are rare but can be donor-specific and produce IgG capable of binding to the kidney allograft. Lastly, intrarenal B cells are capable of stimulating naive T cells but have an altered ability to promote T follicular helper cell expansion. CONCLUSIONS Together, these data demonstrate that intrarenal B cells during transplant rejection are transcriptionally distinct from lymph node B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengcheng Zhang
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
| | - Cecilia B. Cavazzoni
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
| | - Benjamin L. Hanson
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
| | - Elsa D. Bechu
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
| | - Manuel A. Podestà
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
- Renal Division, Department of Health Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Jamil Azzi
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
| | - Bruce R. Blazar
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455
| | - Anita S. Chong
- Department of Surgery, Section of Transplantation, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Daniel Kreisel
- Departments of Surgery, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Alessandro Alessandrini
- Center for Transplantation Sciences, Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Peter T. Sage
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115
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5
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Kolukisa B, Baser D, Akcam B, Danielson J, Eltan SB, Haliloglu Y, Sefer AP, Babayeva R, Akgun G, Charbonnier LM, Schmitz-Abe K, Demirkol YK, Zhang Y, Gonzaga-Jauregui C, Heredia RJ, Kasap N, Kiykim A, Yucel EO, Gok V, Unal E, Kisaarslan AP, Nepesov S, Baysoy G, Onal Z, Yesil G, Celkan TT, Cokugras H, Camcioglu Y, Eken A, Boztug K, Lo B, Karakoc-Aydiner E, Su HC, Ozen A, Chatila TA, Baris S. Evolution and long-term outcomes of combined immunodeficiency due to CARMIL2 deficiency. Allergy 2022; 77:1004-1019. [PMID: 34287962 PMCID: PMC9976932 DOI: 10.1111/all.15010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biallelic loss-of-function mutations in CARMIL2 cause combined immunodeficiency associated with dermatitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and EBV-related smooth muscle tumors. Clinical and immunological characterizations of the disease with long-term follow-up and treatment options have not been previously reported in large cohorts. We sought to determine the clinical and immunological features of CARMIL2 deficiency and long-term efficacy of treatment in controlling different disease manifestations. METHODS The presenting phenotypes, long-term outcomes, and treatment responses were evaluated prospectively in 15 CARMIL2-deficient patients, including 13 novel cases. Lymphocyte subpopulations, protein expression, regulatory T (Treg), and circulating T follicular helper (cTFH ) cells were analyzed. Three-dimensional (3D) migration assay was performed to determine T-cell shape. RESULTS Mean age at disease onset was 38 ± 23 months. Main clinical features were skin manifestations (n = 14, 93%), failure to thrive (n = 10, 67%), recurrent infections (n = 10, 67%), allergic symptoms (n = 8, 53%), chronic diarrhea (n = 4, 27%), and EBV-related leiomyoma (n = 2, 13%). Skin manifestations ranged from atopic and seborrheic dermatitis to psoriasiform rash. Patients had reduced proportions of memory CD4+ T cells, Treg, and cTFH cells. Memory B and NK cells were also decreased. CARMIL2-deficient T cells exhibited reduced T-cell proliferation and cytokine production following CD28 co-stimulation and normal morphology when migrating in a high-density 3D collagen gel matrix. IBD was the most severe clinical manifestation, leading to growth retardation, requiring multiple interventional treatments. All patients were alive with a median follow-up of 10.8 years (range: 3-17 years). CONCLUSION This cohort provides clinical and immunological features and long-term follow-up of different manifestations of CARMIL2 deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burcu Kolukisa
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Dilek Baser
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Bengu Akcam
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Jeffrey Danielson
- Human Immunological Diseases Section, Laboratory of
Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA,Clinical Genomics Program, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD,
USA
| | - Sevgi Bilgic Eltan
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Yesim Haliloglu
- Erciyes University School of Medicine, Department of
Medical Biology, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Asena Pinar Sefer
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Royale Babayeva
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Gamze Akgun
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Louis-Marie Charbonnier
- Boston Children’s Hospital and Department of
Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Division of Immunology, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Klaus Schmitz-Abe
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Division of Immunology
and Newborn Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yasemin Kendir Demirkol
- Genomic Laboratory (GLAB), Umraniye Teaching and Research
Hospital, University of Health Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yu Zhang
- Human Immunological Diseases Section, Laboratory of
Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA,Clinical Genomics Program, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD,
USA
| | | | - Raul Jimenez Heredia
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed
Diseases, Vienna, Austria,St. Anna Children’s Cancer Research Institute
(CCRI), Vienna, Austria
| | - Nurhan Kasap
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Ayca Kiykim
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Faculty of Medicine,
Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Esra Ozek Yucel
- Istanbul University, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine,
Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Veysel Gok
- Erciyes University School of Medicine, Pediatric
Hematology and Oncology, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Ekrem Unal
- Erciyes University School of Medicine, Pediatric
Hematology and Oncology, Kayseri, Turkey
| | | | - Serdar Nepesov
- Medipol University Medical Faculty, Department of
Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gokhan Baysoy
- Medipol University Medical Faculty, Department of
Pediatric Gastroenterology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Zerrin Onal
- Istanbul University, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine,
Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Istanbul,
Turkey
| | - Gozde Yesil
- Istanbul University, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine,
Department of Medical Genetics, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tulin Tiraje Celkan
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Faculty of Medicine,
Division of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Haluk Cokugras
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Faculty of Medicine,
Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yildiz Camcioglu
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Faculty of Medicine,
Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Eken
- Erciyes University School of Medicine, Department of
Medical Biology, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Kaan Boztug
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed
Diseases, Vienna, Austria,St. Anna Children’s Cancer Research Institute
(CCRI), Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernice Lo
- Sidra Medicine, Research Branch, Division of
Translational Medicine, Doha, Qatar,College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa
University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Elif Karakoc-Aydiner
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Helen C. Su
- Human Immunological Diseases Section, Laboratory of
Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA,Clinical Genomics Program, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD,
USA
| | - Ahmet Ozen
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
| | - Talal A. Chatila
- Boston Children’s Hospital and Department of
Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Division of Immunology, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Safa Baris
- Marmara University, Faculty of Medicine, Pediatric Allergy
and Immunology, Istanbul, Turkey,Istanbul Jeffrey Modell Diagnostic and Research Center for
Primary Immunodeficiencies, Istanbul, Turkey,The Isil Berat Barlan Center for Translational
Medicine
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6
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Ribeiro F, Perucha E, Graca L. T follicular cells: the regulators of germinal centre homeostasis. Immunol Lett 2022; 244:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2022.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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7
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Pagan JD, Vlamakis H, Gaca A, Xavier RJ, Anthony RM. Modulating T Follicular Cells In Vivo Enhances Antigen-Specific Humoral Immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:2583-2595. [PMID: 34011521 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2001434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Generation of high-affinity IgG is essential for defense against infections and cancer, which is the intended consequence of many vaccines, but can cause autoimmune and inflammatory diseases when inappropriately directed against self. The interplay of T follicular helper (TFH) cells and T follicular regulatory (TFR) cells is critical for the production of high-affinity IgG of a specific subclass. In this study, we sought to improve Ag-specific IgG responses with two interventions intended to transiently diminish TFR cell influence. First, adult mice were administered an antibiotic mixture (ABX) for an extended period to deplete the immunoregulatory intestinal microbiota. This intriguingly increased TFH cell and reduced TFR cell numbers. 2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl hapten conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin immunization resulted in higher affinity 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl hapten-specific IgG1 in ABX mice compared with controls. In a model of IgG-driven inflammatory nephritis, ABX mice had significantly worse nephritis accompanied by higher affinity Ag-specific IgG2b and enriched TFH cells compared with controls. Second, we sought to functionally manipulate TFH and TFR cells, which both express the checkpoint inhibitory molecule, PD-1, by administration of anti-PD-1 during immunization. This intervention enhanced the affinity of Ag-specific IgG of the appropriate subclass and increased in TFH cells following 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl hapten conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin immunization and nephritis induction. These results suggest that altering TFH and TFR cell ratios during immunization is an appealing strategy to qualitatively improve Ag- and subclass-specific IgG responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose D Pagan
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Hera Vlamakis
- Broad Immunology, Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA; and.,Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Anthony Gaca
- Broad Immunology, Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA; and
| | - Ramnik J Xavier
- Broad Immunology, Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA; and.,Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Robert M Anthony
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA;
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8
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Wei X, Zhang J, Zhou X. Ex-TFRs: A Missing Piece of the SLE Puzzle? Front Immunol 2021; 12:662305. [PMID: 33897710 PMCID: PMC8062926 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.662305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic multi-organ autoimmune disease involving the production of a wide range of autoantibodies and complement activation. The production of these high-affinity autoantibodies requires T cell/B cell collaboration as well as germinal center (GC) formation. T follicular regulatory cells (TFRs) are functional specialized T regulatory cells (Tregs) that safeguard against both self-reactive T and B cells. However, recent evidence suggests that TFRs are not always stable and can lose Foxp3 expression to become pathogenic “ex-TFRs” that gain potent effector functions. In this review, we summarize the literature on intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of regulation of TFR stability and discuss the potential role of TFR reprogramming in autoantibody production and SLE pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xundong Wei
- Center of Biotherapy, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, China
| | - Xuyu Zhou
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, China
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9
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Wing JB, Lim EL, Sakaguchi S. Control of foreign Ag-specific Ab responses by Treg and Tfr. Immunol Rev 2020; 296:104-119. [PMID: 32564426 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) expressing the transcription factor Foxp3 play a critical role in the control of immune homeostasis including the regulation of humoral immunity. Recently, it has become clear that a specialized subset of Tregs, T-follicular regulatory cells (Tfr), have a particular role in the control of T-follicular helper (Tfh) cell-driven germinal center (GC) responses. Following similar differentiation signals as received by Tfh, Tfr gain expression of characteristic chemokine receptors and transcription factors such as CXCR5 and BCL6 allowing them to travel to the B-cell follicle and deliver in situ suppression. It seems clear that Tfr are critical for the prevention of autoimmune antibody induction. However, their role in the control of foreign antigen-specific antibody responses appears more complex with various reports demonstrating either increased or decreased antigen-specific antibody responses following inhibition of Tfr function. Due to their recent discovery, our understanding of Tfr formation and function still has many gaps. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge of both Tregs and Tfr in the context of humoral immunity and how these cells might be manipulated in order to better control vaccine responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Wing
- Laboritory of Human Immunology (Single Cell Immunology), Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Ee Lyn Lim
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Shimon Sakaguchi
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.,Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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10
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Niu Q, Kraaijeveld R, Li Y, Mendoza Rojas A, Shi Y, Wang L, Van Besouw NM, Baan CC. An overview of T follicular cells in transplantation: spotlight on their clinical significance. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2019; 15:1249-1262. [PMID: 31721600 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2020.1693262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: For late stage organ failure patients, transplantation is the best option to increase life expectancy with a superior quality of life. Unfortunately, after transplantation many patients are at risk of cellular and antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR). The latter is initiated by donor specific antibodies (DSA) which depend on the actions of B cells, T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells that are present in the germinal center of lymphoid organs.Areas covered: In this overview paper, we discuss the biology and function of Tfh and Tfr cells in lymphoid tissues, transplanted organs and their circulating counterparts. We report on their relevance to alloimmunity and on the effects of immunosuppressive drugs on these immunocompetent cell populations.Expert opinion: Growing knowledge about the actions of Tfh and Tfr allows for a better understanding of the immunological mechanisms of ABMR after organ transplantation. This understanding feeds the hypothesis that immunosuppressive drugs targeting the actions of Tfh cells have huge therapeutic potential. This new concept in the treatment of the humoral rejection response will improve graft and patient survival after organ transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Niu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Department Internal Medicine - Sector Nephrology & Transplantation, The Rotterdam Transplant Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rens Kraaijeveld
- Department Internal Medicine - Sector Nephrology & Transplantation, The Rotterdam Transplant Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Aleixandra Mendoza Rojas
- Department Internal Medicine - Sector Nephrology & Transplantation, The Rotterdam Transplant Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yunying Shi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lanlan Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Nicole M Van Besouw
- Department Internal Medicine - Sector Nephrology & Transplantation, The Rotterdam Transplant Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carla C Baan
- Department Internal Medicine - Sector Nephrology & Transplantation, The Rotterdam Transplant Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Aloulou M, Fazilleau N. Regulation of B cell responses by distinct populations of CD4 T cells. Biomed J 2019; 42:243-251. [PMID: 31627866 PMCID: PMC6818157 DOI: 10.1016/j.bj.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Maturation of B cells in Germinal Centers (GC) is a hallmark in adaptive immunity and the basis of successful vaccines that protect us against lethal infections. Nonetheless, vaccination efficacy is very much reduced in aged population and against highly mutagenic viruses. Therefore, it is key to understand how B cell selection takes place in GC in order to develop new and fully protective vaccines. The cellular mechanisms that control selection of GC B cells are performed by different T cell populations. On one side, cognate entanglement of B cells with T follicular helper (Tfh) cells through cytokines and co-stimulatory signals promotes survival, proliferation, mutagenesis and terminal differentiation of GC B cells. On the other hand, regulatory T cells have also been reported within GC and interfere with T cell help for antibody production. These cells have been classified as a distinct T cell sub-population called T Follicular regulatory cells (Tfr). In this review, we investigate the phenotype, function and differentiation of these two cell populations. In addition, based on the different functions of these cell subsets, we highlight the open questions surrounding their heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meryem Aloulou
- Center for Pathophysiology of Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France; INSERM U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS UMR5282, Toulouse, France; University of Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Nicolas Fazilleau
- Center for Pathophysiology of Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France; INSERM U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS UMR5282, Toulouse, France; University of Toulouse III, Toulouse, France.
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12
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Ryba-Stanisławowska M, Sakowska J, Zieliński M, Ławrynowicz U, Trzonkowski P. Regulatory T cells: the future of autoimmune disease treatment. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2019; 15:777-789. [PMID: 31104510 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2019.1620602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: CD4 + T regulatory cells (Tregs) have been described as the most potent immunosuppressive cells in the human body. They have been found to control autoimmunity, and clinical attempts have been made to apply them to treat autoimmune diseases. Some specific pathways utilized by Tregs in the regulation of immune response or Tregs directly as cellular products are tested in the clinic. Areas covered: Here, we present recent advances in the research on the biology and clinical applications of Tregs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Expert opinion: Regulatory T cells seem to be a promising tool for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The development of both cell-based therapies and modern pharmacotherapies which affect Tregs may strongly improve the treatment of autoimmune disorders. Growing knowledge about Treg biology together with the latest biotechnology tools may give an opportunity for personalized therapies in these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Ryba-Stanisławowska
- a Department of Medical Immunology , Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
| | - Justyna Sakowska
- b Department of Medical Immunology , Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
| | - Maciej Zieliński
- b Department of Medical Immunology , Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
| | - Urszula Ławrynowicz
- a Department of Medical Immunology , Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
| | - Piotr Trzonkowski
- a Department of Medical Immunology , Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
- b Department of Medical Immunology , Medical University of Gdańsk , Debinki , Poland
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13
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Abstract
De novo donor-specific antibody (DSA) formation is a major problem in transplantation, and associated with long-term graft decline and loss as well as sensitization, limiting future transplant options. Forming high-affinity, long-lived antibody responses involves a process called the germinal center (GC) reaction, and requires interaction between several cell types, including GC B cells, T follicular helper (Tfh) and T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells. T follicular regulatory cells are an essential component of the GC reaction, limiting its size and reducing nonspecific or self-reactive responses.An imbalance between helper function and regulatory function can lead to excessive antibody production. High proportions of Tfh cells have been associated with DSA formation in transplantation; therefore, Tfr cells are likely to play an important role in limiting DSA production. Understanding the signals that govern Tfr cell development and the balance between helper and regulatory function within the GC is key to understanding how these cells might be manipulated to reduce the risk of DSA development.This review discusses the development and function of Tfr cells and their relevance to transplantation. In particular how current and future immunosuppressive strategies might allow us to skew the ratio between Tfr and Tfh cells to increase or decrease the risk of de novo DSA formation.
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14
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Getahun A, Cambier JC. Non-Antibody-Secreting Functions of B Cells and Their Contribution to Autoimmune Disease. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2019; 35:337-356. [PMID: 30883216 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100617-062518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
B cells play multiple important roles in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disease. Beyond producing pathogenic autoantibodies, B cells can act as antigen-presenting cells and producers of cytokines, including both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Here we review our current understanding of the non-antibody-secreting roles that B cells may play during development of autoimmunity, as learned primarily from reductionist preclinical models. Attention is also given to concepts emerging from clinical studies using B cell depletion therapy, which shed light on the roles of these mechanisms in human autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Getahun
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA; .,Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado 80206, USA
| | - John C Cambier
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA; .,Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado 80206, USA
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15
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Xie MM, Dent AL. Unexpected Help: Follicular Regulatory T Cells in the Germinal Center. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1536. [PMID: 30013575 PMCID: PMC6036241 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are necessary for germinal center (GC) formation and within the GC, provide key signals to B cells for their differentiation into plasmablasts and plasma cells that secrete high-affinity and isotype-switched antibody (Ab). A specialized subset of Foxp3+ T cells termed T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells, also regulate the differentiation of Ab-secreting cells from the GC. Tfr-cell function in the GC is not well understood, however, the dominant paradigm currently is that Tfr cells repress excessive Tfh and GC B cell proliferation and help promote stringent selection of high-affinity B cells. A mouse model where the Bcl6 gene is specifically deleted in Foxp3+ T cells (Bcl6FC mice) allows the study of Tfr cell function with more precision than other approaches. Studies with this model have shown that Tfr cells play a key role in maintaining GC B cell proliferation and Ab levels. Part of the mechanism for this positive "helper" effect of Tfr cells on the GC is Tfr cell-derived IL-10, which can promote B cell growth and entry into the dark zone of the GC. Recent studies on Tfr cells support a new paradigm for Tfr cell function in the GC reaction. Here, we review studies on Tfr cell functions and discuss the evidence that Tfr cells can have a major helper role in the GC-dependent Ab response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus M Xie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Alexander L Dent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
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16
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Schwarz C, Mahr B, Muckenhuber M, Wekerle T. Belatacept/CTLA4Ig: an update and critical appraisal of preclinical and clinical results. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2018; 14:583-592. [PMID: 29874474 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2018.1485489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The B7/CD28/CTLA4 signaling cascade is the most thoroughly studied costimulatory pathway and blockade with CTLA4Ig (abatacept) or its derivative belatacept has emerged as a valuable option for pharmacologic immune modulation. Several clinical studies have ultimately led to the approval of belatacept for immunosuppression in kidney transplant recipients. Areas covered: This review will discuss the immunological background of costimulation blockade and recent preclinical data and clinical results of CTLA4Ig/belatacept. Expert commentary: The development of belatacept is a major advance in clinical transplantation. However, in spite of promising results in preclinical and clinical trials, clinical use remains limited at present, in part due to increased rates of acute rejection. Recent efforts showing encouraging progress in refining such protocols might be a step toward harnessing the full potential of costimulation blockade-based immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Schwarz
- a Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.,b Section of Transplantation Immunology, Department of Surgery , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
| | - Benedikt Mahr
- b Section of Transplantation Immunology, Department of Surgery , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
| | - Moritz Muckenhuber
- b Section of Transplantation Immunology, Department of Surgery , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
| | - Thomas Wekerle
- b Section of Transplantation Immunology, Department of Surgery , Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
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17
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Abstract
Regulation of immune responses is critical for ensuring pathogen clearance and for preventing reaction against self-antigens. Failure or breakdown of immunological tolerance results in autoimmunity. CD28 is an important co-stimulatory receptor expressed on T cells that, upon specific ligand binding, delivers signals essential for full T-cell activation and for the development and homeostasis of suppressive regulatory T cells. Many
in vivo mouse models have been used for understanding the role of CD28 in the maintenance of immune homeostasis, thus leading to the development of CD28 signaling modulators that have been approved for the treatment of some autoimmune diseases. Despite all of this progress, a deeper understanding of the differences between the mouse and human receptor is required to allow a safe translation of pre-clinical studies in efficient therapies. In this review, we discuss the role of CD28 in tolerance and autoimmunity and the clinical efficacy of drugs that block or enhance CD28 signaling, by highlighting the success and failure of pre-clinical studies, when translated to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicla Porciello
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Martina Kunkl
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology Charles Darwin, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Loretta Tuosto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology Charles Darwin, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
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18
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Marangoni F, Zhang R, Mani V, Thelen M, Ali Akbar NJ, Warner RD, Äijö T, Zappulli V, Martinez GJ, Turka LA, Mempel TR. Tumor Tolerance-Promoting Function of Regulatory T Cells Is Optimized by CD28, but Strictly Dependent on Calcineurin. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:3647-3661. [PMID: 29661826 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Treg) restrain immune responses against malignant tumors, but their global depletion in cancer patients will likely be limited by systemic autoimmune toxicity. Instead, approaches to "tune" their activities may allow for preferential targeting of tumor-reactive Treg. Although Ag recognition regulates Treg function, the roles of individual TCR-dependent signaling pathways in enabling Treg to promote tumor tolerance are not well characterized. In this study, we examined in mouse tumor models the role of calcineurin, a key mediator of TCR signaling, and the role of the costimulatory receptor CD28 in the differentiation of resting central Treg into effector Treg endowed with tumor tropism. We find that calcineurin, although largely dispensable for suppressive activity in vitro, is essential for upregulation of ICOS and CTLA-4 in Treg, as well as for expression of chemokine receptors driving their accumulation in tumors. In contrast, CD28 is not critical, but optimizes the formation of tumor-homing Treg and their fitness in tumor tissue. Accordingly, although deletion of either CnB or CD28 strongly impairs Treg-mediated tumor tolerance, lack of CnB has an even more pronounced impact than lack of CD28. Hence, our studies reveal distinct roles for what has classically been defined as signal 1 and signal 2 of conventional T cell activation in the context of Treg-mediated tumor tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Marangoni
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114; .,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Ruan Zhang
- Center for Transplantation Sciences, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Vinidhra Mani
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Martin Thelen
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Noor J Ali Akbar
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Ross D Warner
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Tarmo Äijö
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY 10010
| | - Valentina Zappulli
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy; and
| | - Gustavo J Martinez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064
| | - Laurence A Turka
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,Center for Transplantation Sciences, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Thorsten R Mempel
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114; .,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
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19
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Good-Jacobson KL, Groom JR. Tailoring Immune Responses toward Autoimmunity: Transcriptional Regulators That Drive the Creation and Collusion of Autoreactive Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2018; 9:482. [PMID: 29568300 PMCID: PMC5852063 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
T-dependent humoral immune responses to infection involve a collaboration between B and CD4 T cell activation, migration, and co-stimulation, thereby culminating in the formation of germinal centers (GCs) and eventual differentiation into memory cells and long-lived plasma cells (PCs). CD4 T cell-derived signals drive the formation of a tailored B cell response. Downstream of these signals are transcriptional regulators that are the critical enactors of immune cell programs. In particular, a core group of transcription factors regulate both B and T cell differentiation, identity, and function. The timing and expression levels of these transcription factors are tightly controlled, with dysregulated expression correlated to immune cell dysfunction in autoimmunity and lymphomagenesis. Recent studies have significantly advanced our understanding of both extrinsic and intrinsic regulators of autoreactive B cells and antibody-secreting PCs in systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune conditions. Yet, there are still gaps in our understanding of the causative role these regulators play, as well as the link between lymphoid responses and peripheral damage. This review will focus on the genesis of immunopathogenic CD4 helper and GC B cells. In particular, we will detail the transcriptional regulation of cytokine and chemokine receptor signaling during the pathogenesis of GC-derived autoimmune conditions in both murine models and human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim L Good-Jacobson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.,Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Joanna R Groom
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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