IL-33 Released in the Liver Inhibits Tumor Growth via Promotion of CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Responses in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

IL-33 and IL-33-derived DC-based tumor immunotherapy

Interleukin-33 (IL-33), a member of the IL-1 family, is a cytokine released in response to tissue damage and is recognized as an alarmin. The multifaceted roles of IL-33 in tumor progression have sparked controversy within the scientific community. However, most findings generally indicate that endogenous IL-33 has a protumor effect, while exogenous IL-33 often has an antitumor effect in most cases. This review covers the general characteristics of IL-33 and its effects on tumor growth, with detailed information on the immunological mechanisms associated with dendritic cells (DCs). Notably, DCs possess the capability to uptake, process, and present antigens to CD8+ T cells, positioning them as professional antigen-presenting cells. Recent findings from our research highlight the direct association between the tumor-suppressive effects of exogenous IL-33 and a novel subset of highly immunogenic cDC1s. Exogenous IL-33 induces the development of these highly immunogenic cDC1s through the activation of other ST2+ immune cells both in vivo and in vitro. Recognizing the pivotal role of the immunogenicity of DC vaccines in DC-based tumor immunotherapy, we propose compelling methods to enhance this immunogenicity through the addition of IL-33 and the promotion of highly immunogenic DC generation.

Role of T cells in liver metastasis

The liver is a major metastatic site (organ) for gastrointestinal cancers (such as colorectal, gastric, and pancreatic cancers) as well as non-gastrointestinal cancers (such as lung, breast, and melanoma cancers). Due to the innate anatomical position of the liver, the apoptosis of T cells in the liver, the unique metabolic regulation of hepatocytes and other potential mechanisms, the liver tends to form an immunosuppressive microenvironment and subsequently form a pre-metastatic niche (PMN), which can promote metastasis and colonization by various tumor cells(TCs). As a result, the critical role of immunoresponse in liver based metastasis has become increasingly appreciated. T cells, a centrally important member of adaptive immune response, play a significant role in liver based metastases and clarifying the different roles of the various T cells subsets is important to guide future clinical treatment. In this review, we first introduce the predisposing factors and related mechanisms of liver metastasis (LM) before introducing the PMN and its transition to LM. Finally, we detail the role of different subsets of T cells in LM and advances in the management of LM in order to identify potential therapeutic targets for patients with LM.

IL-33/ST2 Signaling and its Correlation with Macrophage Heterogeneity and Clinicopathologic Features in Human Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

IL-33/ST2 signaling plays crucial roles in the development and progression of various human malignancies. However, its significance in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) still remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the expression of IL-33/ST2 signaling and its correlations with macrophage heterogeneity and ICC patients' clinicopathologic features.

METHODS

The expression of different phenotype macrophage markers and IL-33/ST2 signalingrelated markers was detected. The correlation between L-33/ST2 signaling and different phenotype macrophage markers as well as ICC patients' clinicopathologic data was evaluated.

RESULTS

Massive heterogeneous cancer cells and PAS-positive cells were observed in tumor tissues. CD68-positive cells accumulated in tumor tissues and expression of both M1 phenotype markers and M2 phenotype macrophage markers was higher in tumor samples than para-carcinoma samples. However, M2 phenotype macrophages represented the dominant macrophage population in ICC tissues. Plasma levels of IL-33, ST2, and MIF were evidently enhanced in ICC patients compared to healthy controls. IL-33/ST2 signaling-related markers exhibited a massive increase in tumor samples than para-carcinoma samples. IL-33 and ST2 expression in ICC tissues was positively associated with M1 and M2 phenotype macrophages. Plasma levels of IL-33, ST2, and MIF were correlated with the diameter of tumor lesions, lymph node metastasis, TNM stage, and tumor differentiation degree. Multivariate analysis demonstrated IL-33 expression to exhibit a correlation with the diameter of tumor lesions, lymph node metastasis, and TNM stage. Additionally, there was a relationship observed between ST2, MIF expression, and diameter of tumor lesions plus TNM stage.

CONCLUSION

IL-33/ST2 signaling exhibited a positive relationship with macrophage heterogeneity in ICC tissues, and upregulated levels of IL-33, ST2, and MIF were associated with aggressive clinicopathologic characteristics. These findings may provide promising diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic strategies for ICC patients targeting IL-33/ST2 signaling.

Unpacking the complexity of nuclear IL-33 (nIL-33): a crucial regulator of transcription and signal transduction

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) (NF-HEV), a chromatin-associated nuclear cytokine, is a member of the IL-1 family. IL-33 possesses a nuclear localization signal and a homeodomain (a structure resembling a helix-turn-helix) that can bind to nuclear chromatin. Research has revealed that IL-33 can function as a nuclear factor to regulate various biological processes. This review discusses the cellular localization, functional effects, and immune regulation of full length IL-33 (FLIL-33), cytokine IL-33 (sIL-33) and nuclear IL-33 (nIL-33). In addition, the post-translational modifications of nIL-33 and the hypothesis of using nIL-33 as a treatment method were also summarized. A multidisciplinary approach is required which integrates methods and techniques from genomics, proteomics, cell biology and immunology to provide comprehensive insights into the function and therapeutic potential of nIL-33.

Discovery of highly immunogenic spleen-resident FCGR3+CD103+ cDC1s differentiated by IL-33-primed ST2+ basophils

Recombinant interleukin-33 (IL-33) inhibits tumor growth, but the detailed immunological mechanism is still unknown. IL-33-mediated tumor suppression did not occur in Batf3^-/- mice, indicating that conventional type 1 dendritic cells (cDC1s) play a key role in IL-33-mediated antitumor immunity. A population of CD103⁺ cDC1s, which were barely detectable in the spleens of normal mice, increased significantly in the spleens of IL-33-treated mice. The newly emerged splenic CD103⁺ cDC1s were distinct from conventional splenic cDC1s based on their spleen residency, robust effector T-cell priming ability, and surface expression of FCGR3. DCs and DC precursors did not express Suppressor of Tumorigenicity 2 (ST2). However, recombinant IL-33 induced spleen-resident FCGR3⁺CD103⁺ cDC1s, which were found to be differentiated from DC precursors by bystander ST2⁺ immune cells. Through immune cell fractionation and depletion assays, we found that IL-33-primed ST2⁺ basophils play a crucial role in the development of FCGR3⁺CD103⁺ cDC1s by secreting IL-33-driven extrinsic factors. Recombinant GM-CSF also induced the population of CD103⁺ cDC1s, but the population neither expressed FCGR3 nor induced any discernable antitumor immunity. The population of FCGR3⁺CD103⁺ cDC1s was also generated in vitro culture of Flt3L-mediated bone marrow-derived DCs (FL-BMDCs) when IL-33 was added in a pre-DC stage of culture. FL-BMDCs generated in the presence of IL-33 (FL-33-DCs) offered more potent tumor immunotherapy than control Flt3L-BMDCs (FL-DCs). Human monocyte-derived DCs were also more immunogenic when exposed to IL-33-induced factors. Our findings suggest that recombinant IL-33 or an IL-33-mediated DC vaccine could be an attractive protocol for better tumor immunotherapy.

SUMOylated IL-33 in the nucleus stabilizes the transcription factor IRF1 in hepatocellular carcinoma cells to promote immune escape

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) functions both as a secreted cytokine and as a nuclear factor, with pleiotropic roles in cancer and immunity. Here, we explored its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and identified that a posttranslational modification altered its nuclear activity and promoted immune escape for HCC. IL-33 abundance was overall decreased but more frequently localized to the nucleus in patient HCC tissues than in normal liver tissues. In human and mouse HCC cells in culture and in vivo, IL-33 overexpression inhibited proliferation and repressed the abundance of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) at the transcriptional level by promoting the ubiquitin-dependent degradation of interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1). However, this interaction was disrupted by SUMOylation of IL-33 at Lys⁵⁴ mediated by the E3 ligase RanBP2. IL-33 SUMOylation correlated with its nuclear localization in HCC cells and tumors. An increase in SUMOylated IL-33 in HCC cells in cocultures and in vivo stabilized IRF1 and increased PD-L1 abundance and chemokine IL-8 secretion, which prevented the activation of cytotoxic T cells and promoted the M2 polarization of macrophages, respectively. Mutating the SUMOylation site in IL-33 reversed these effects and suppressed tumor growth. These findings indicate that SUMOylation of nuclear IL-33 in HCC cells impairs antitumor immunity.

Relationship and prognostic significance of IL-33, PD-1/PD-L1, and tertiary lymphoid structures in cervical cancer

IL-33, an epithelial-derived cytokine, functions as an alarmin for the immune system in the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the expression and role of IL-33 on cervical cancer remain unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of IL-33 and its relationship with clinicopathologic features, tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS), and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death 1 ligand (PD-L1) immune checkpoints by immunohistochemistry in 93 cervical cancer patient specimens. Down-regulation of IL-33 expression was observed in tumor tissues compared with adjacent tissues. More importantly, IL-33 was detected in the cytoplasm of tumor fraction. IL-33 expression in tumor cytoplasm was associated with tumor size and the invasive depth of tumors (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, IL-33 expression in tumor cytoplasm was positively correlated with infiltration of CD3⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells, and PD-L1 expression in tumor tissues (p < 0.05). The number of TLS strongly correlated with the depth of tumor invasion, preoperative chemotherapy, human papillomavirus infection, and high level of PD-1 (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant relationship between IL-33 and TLS. Kaplan-Meier survival curves showed that the formation of TLS was associated with a better prognosis (p = 0.008). In multivariable Cox regression modeling, high expression of PD-L1 in tumor tissues was correlated with poor prognosis (HR = 0.128; 95% CI: 0.026-0.646; p = 0.013), whereas the high expression of IL-33 in tumor tissues was associated with better prognosis (HR = 5.097; 95% CI:1.050-24.755; p = 0.043). These results indicate that IL-33, TLS, and PD-L1 are potentially valuable prognostic predictor for cervical cancer. IL-33 has potential for combination with PD-L1-related antitumor therapy.

Machine learning algorithms based on proteomic data mining accurately predicting the recurrence of hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Over 10% of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases recur each year, even after surgical resection. Currently, there is a lack of knowledge about the causes of recurrence and the effective prevention. Prediction of HCC recurrence requires diagnostic markers endowed with high sensitivity and specificity. This study aims to identify new key proteins for HCC recurrence and to build machine learning algorithms for predicting HCC recurrence.

METHODS

The proteomics data for analysis in this study were obtained from the Clinical Proteomics Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC) database. We analyzed different proteins based on cases with or without recurrence of HCC. Survival analysis, Cox regression analysis, and area under the ROC curves (AUROC > 0.7) were used to screen for more significant differential proteins. Predictive models for HCC recurrence were developed using four machine learning algorithms.

RESULTS

A total of 690 differentially expressed proteins between 50 relapsed and 77 non-relapsed hepatitis B-related HCC patients were identified. Seven of these proteins had an AUROC > 0.7 for 5-year survival in HCC, including BAHCC1, ESF1, RAP1GAP, RUFY1, SCAMP3, STK3, and TMEM230. Among the machine learning algorithms, the random forest algorithm showed the highest AUROC values (AUROC: 0.991, 95% CI 0.962-0.999) for identifying HCC recurrence, followed by the support vector machine (AUROC: 0.893, 95% Cl 0.824-0.956), the logistic regression (AUROC: 0.774, 95% Cl 0.672-0.868), and the multi-layer perceptron algorithm (AUROC: 0.571, 95% Cl 0.459-0.682).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study identifies seven novel proteins for predicting HCC recurrence and the random forest algorithm as the most suitable predictive model for HCC recurrence.

Dual Immune Regulatory Roles of Interleukin-33 in Pathological Conditions

Interleukin-33 (IL-33), a member of the IL-1 cytokine family and a multifunctional cytokine, plays critical roles in maintaining host homeostasis and in pathological conditions, such as allergy, infectious diseases, and cancer, by acting on multiple types of immune cells and promoting type 1 and 2 immune responses. IL-33 is rapidly released by immune and non-immune cells upon stimulation by stress, acting as an “alarmin” by binding to its receptor, suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (ST2), to trigger downstream signaling pathways and activate inflammatory and immune responses. It has been recognized that IL-33 displays dual-functioning immune regulatory effects in many diseases and has both pro- and anti-tumorigenic effects, likely depending on its primary target cells, IL-33/sST2 expression levels, cellular context, and the cytokine microenvironment. Herein, we summarize our current understanding of the biological functions of IL-33 and its roles in the pathogenesis of various conditions, including inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, infections, cancers, and cases of organ transplantation. We emphasize the nature of context-dependent dual immune regulatory functions of IL-33 in many cells and diseases and review systemic studies to understand the distinct roles of IL-33 in different cells, which is essential to the development of more effective diagnoses and therapeutic approaches for IL-33-related diseases.

Cytokine- and chemokine-induced inflammatory colorectal tumor microenvironment: Emerging avenue for targeted therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a predominant life-threatening cancer, with liver and peritoneal metastases as the primary causes of death. Intestinal inflammation, a known CRC risk factor, nurtures a local inflammatory environment enriched with tumor cells, endothelial cells, immune cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, immunosuppressive cells, and secretory growth factors. The complex interactions of aberrantly expressed cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and matrix-remodeling enzymes promote CRC pathogenesis and evoke systemic responses that affect disease outcomes. Mounting evidence suggests that these cytokines and chemokines play a role in the progression of CRC through immunosuppression and modulation of the tumor microenvironment, which is partly achieved by the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells. These cells impart features such as cancer stem cell-like properties, drug resistance, invasion, and formation of the premetastatic niche in distant organs, promoting metastasis and aggressive CRC growth. A deeper understanding of the cytokine- and chemokine-mediated signaling networks that link tumor progression and metastasis will provide insights into the mechanistic details of disease aggressiveness and facilitate the development of novel therapeutics for CRC. Here, we summarized the current knowledge of cytokine- and chemokine-mediated crosstalk in the inflammatory tumor microenvironment, which drives immunosuppression, resistance to therapeutics, and metastasis during CRC progression. We also outlined the potential of this crosstalk as a novel therapeutic target for CRC. The major cytokine/chemokine pathways involved in cancer immunotherapy are also discussed in this review.

IL-33 biology in cancer: An update and future perspectives

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a member of the IL-1 family of cytokines that is constitutively expressed in the nucleus of epithelial, endothelial and fibroblast-like cells. Upon cell stress, damage or necrosis, IL-33 is released into the cytoplasm to exert its prime role as an alarmin by binding to its specific receptor moiety, ST2. IL-33 exhibits pleiotropic function in inflammatory diseases and particularly in cancer. IL-33 may play a dual role as both a pro-tumorigenic and anti-tumorigenic cytokine, dependent on tumor and cellular context, expression levels, bioactivity and the nature of the inflammatory environment. In this review, we discuss the differential contribution of IL-33 to malignant or inflammatory conditions, its multifaceted effects on the tumor microenvironment, while providing possible explanations for the discrepant findings described in the literature. Additionally, we examine the emerging and divergent functions of IL-33 in the nucleus, and aspects of IL-33 biology that are currently under-addressed.

Gasdermin D-mediated release of IL-33 from senescent hepatic stellate cells promotes obesity-associated hepatocellular carcinoma

Long-term senescent cells exhibit a secretome termed the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Although the mechanisms of SASP factor induction have been intensively studied, the release mechanism and how SASP factors influence tumorigenesis in the biological context remain unclear. In this study, using a mouse model of obesity-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we identified the release mechanism of SASP factors, which include interleukin-1β (IL-1β)- and IL-1β-dependent IL-33, from senescent hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) via gasdermin D (GSDMD) amino-terminal-mediated pore. We found that IL-33 was highly induced in senescent HSCs in an IL-1β-dependent manner in the tumor microenvironment. The release of both IL-33 and IL-1β was triggered by lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a cell wall component of gut microbiota that was transferred and accumulated in the liver tissue of high-fat diet-fed mice, and the release of these factors was mediated through cell membrane pores formed by the GSDMD amino terminus, which was cleaved by LTA-induced caspase-11. We demonstrated that IL-33 release from HSCs promoted HCC development via the activation of ST2-positive T_reg cells in the liver tumor microenvironment. The accumulation of GSDMD amino terminus was also detected in HSCs from human NASH-associated HCC patients, suggesting that similar mechanism could be involved in a certain type of human HCC. These results uncover a release mechanism for SASP factors from sensitized senescent HSCs in the tumor microenvironment, thereby facilitating obesity-associated HCC progression. Furthermore, our findings highlight the therapeutic potential of inhibitors of GSDMD-mediated pore formation for HCC treatment.

Acute portal hypertension using portal vein ligation abrogates TRAIL expression of liver-resident NK cells

The effects of acute portal hypertension (PHT), which is reported as poor prognostic factors in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, are not well known on the liver immune system, including natural killer (NK) cells. The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate how acute PHT influences the functions and characteristics of liver‐resident NK (lr‐NK) cells using an acute PHT mouse model. Acute PHT decreased the number of tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis‐inducing ligand (TRAIL⁺) lr‐NK cells by about 20% and attenuated cytotoxic activity against the Hepa1‐6 cell line by about 40%. Among various cytokine, only interleukin‐33 (IL‐33), which inhibits NK activity, significantly increased after portal vein ligation (PVL). Because lr‐NK cells highly expressed ST2/IL‐33R, IL‐33 co‐culture significantly suppressed TRAIL expression on lr‐NK cells by about 50%, and IL‐33 administration markedly decreased TRAIL expression and cytotoxic activity of lr‐NK cells. Furthermore, the TRAIL⁺ NK cells population was maintained by anti‐IL33 antibody or following portosystemic shunt procedure even after PVL. Finally, we demonstrated that IL‐33 decreased TRAIL expression in lr‐NK cells via AKT–forkhead box O (FoxO) and mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling. Conclusion: This work demonstrates that PHT suppresses the TRAIL⁺ lr‐NK cell population and antitumor activities in the liver. Additionally, Akt‐FoxO and MAPK signaling pathways attenuate the TRAIL expression in lt‐NK cells via IL‐33 receptor in mice.

Association of the presence of allergic disease with subsequent risk of liver cancer in a nationwide retrospective cohort among Koreans

A number of studies have proposed an inverse association between allergic diseases and risk of cancer, but only a few studies have specifically investigated the risk of primary liver cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC). The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of allergic diseases with risk of primary liver cancer. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of the Korean National Health Insurance Service database consisted of 405,512 Korean adults ages 40 and above who underwent health screening before January 1st, 2005. All participants were followed up until the date of liver cancer, death, or December 31st, 2013, whichever happened earliest. Those who died before the index date or had pre-diagnosed cancer were excluded from the analyses. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to determine the adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for risk of primary liver cancer according to the presence of allergic diseases, including atopic dermatitis, asthma, and allergic rhinitis. The aHR (95% CI) for overall liver cancer among allergic patients was 0.77 (0.68–0.87) compared to those without allergic disease. Allergic patients had significantly reduced risk of HCC (aHR, 0.72; 95% CI 0.62–0.85) but not ICC (aHR, 0.95; 95% CI 0.73–1.22). The presence of allergies was associated with significantly lower risk of liver cancer among patients whose systolic blood pressure is lower than 140 mmHg (aHR, 0.64; 95% CI 0.62–0.78 for overall liver cancer; aHR, 0.64; 95% CI 0.52–0.78 for HCC) but this effect was not observed among patients whose systolic blood pressure is higher than 140 mmHg (aHR, 0.91; 95% CI 0.71–1.18 for overall liver cancer; aHR, 0.91; 95% CI 0.71–1.18 for HCC) The aHR (95% CI) for overall liver cancer of allergic patients with and without chronic hepatitis virus infection were 0.60 (95% CI 0.44–0.81) and 0.77 (95% CI 0.64–0.93), respectively. In addition, allergic patients without cirrhosis showed significantly lower risk of overall liver cancer (aHR, 0.73; 95% CI 0.63–0.83). Patients with allergic diseases have significantly lower risk of primary liver cancer compared to those without allergic diseases, which supports the rationale for immunotherapy as an effective treatment for liver cancer.

Construction and Validation of a Combined Ferroptosis and Hypoxia Prognostic Signature for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background: Ferroptosis, as a unique programmed cell death modality, has been found to be closely related to the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Hypoxia signaling pathway has been found to be extensively involved in the transformation and growth of HCC and to inhibit anti-tumor therapy through various approaches. However, there is no high-throughput study to explore the potential link between ferroptosis and hypoxia, as well as their combined effect on the prognosis of HCC.

Methods: We included 370 patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and 231 patients in the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) database. Univariate COX regression and Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator approach were used to construct ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) and hypoxia-related genes (HRGs) prognostic signature (FHPS). Kaplan–Meier method and Receiver Operating Characteristic curves were analyzed to evaluate the predictive capability of FHPS. CIBERSOR and single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis were used to explore the connection between FHPS and tumor immune microenvironment. Immunohistochemical staining was used to compare the protein expression of prognostic FRGs and HRGs between normal liver tissue and HCC tissue. In addition, the nomogram was established to facilitate the clinical application of FHPS.

Results: Ten FRGs and HRGs were used to establish the FHPS. We found consistent results in the TCGA training cohort, as well as in the independent ICGC validation cohort, that patients in the high-FHPS subgroup had advanced tumor staging, shorter survival time, and higher mortality. Moreover, patients in the high-FHPS subgroup showed ferroptosis suppressive, high hypoxia, and immunosuppression status. Finally, the nomogram showed a strong prognostic capability to predict overall survival (OS) for HCC patients.

Conclusion: We developed a novel prognostic signature combining ferroptosis and hypoxia to predict OS, ferroptosis, hypoxia, and immune status, which provides a new idea for individualized treatment of HCC patients.

Emerging Role of Interleukins for the Assessment and Treatment of Liver Diseases

BACKGROUND

The most common liver diseases are fibrosis, alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty disease, viral hepatitis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. These liver diseases account for approximately 2 million deaths per year worldwide, with cirrhosis accounting for 2.1% of the worldwide burden. The most widely used liver function tests for diagnosis are alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, serum proteins, serum albumin, and serum globulins, whereas antivirals and corticosteroids have been proven to be useful for the treatment of liver diseases. A major disadvantage of these diagnostic measures is the lack of specificity to a particular tissue or cell type, as these enzymes are common to one or more tissues. The major adverse effect of current treatment methods is drug resistance. To overcome these issues, interleukins have been investigated. The balance of these interleukins determines the outcome of an immune response. Interleukins are considered interesting therapeutic targets for the treatment of liver diseases. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding interleukins in the diagnosis, treatment, and pathogenesis of different acute and chronic liver diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To understand the role of interleukins in the assessment and treatment of different types of liver diseases.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Science Direct, and NCBI with the following keywords: Interleukins, Acute Liver Failure, Alcoholic Liver Disease, Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease, Liver Fibrosis, Hepatocellular Carcinoma, Inflammation, Liver injury, Hepatoprotective effect. Clinical trial data on these interleukins have been searched on Clinicaltrials.gov.

RESULTS

Existing literature and preclinical and clinical trial data demonstrate that interleukins play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of liver diseases.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IL-22, IL-35, and IL-37 are involved in the progression and control of various liver conditions via the regulation of cell signaling pathways. However, further investigation on the involvement of these interleukins is necessary for their use as a targeted therapy in liver diseases.

The Janus Face of IL-33 Signaling in Tumor Development and Immune Escape

Simple Summary

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is often released from damaged cells, acting as a danger signal. IL-33 exerts its function by interacting with its receptor suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (ST2) that is constitutively expressed on most immune cells. Therefore, IL-33/ST2 signaling can modulate immune responses to participate actively in a variety of pathological conditions, such as cancer. Like a two-faced Janus, which faces opposite directions, IL-33/ST2 signaling may play contradictory roles on its impact on cancer progression through both immune and nonimmune cellular components. Accumulating evidence demonstrates both pro- and anti-tumorigenic properties of IL-33, depending on the complex nature of different tumor immune microenvironments. We summarize and discuss the most recent studies on the contradictory effects of IL-33 on cancer progression and treatment, with a goal to better understanding the various ways for IL-33 as a therapeutic target.

Abstract

Interleukin-33 (IL-33), a member of the IL-1 cytokine family, plays a critical role in maintaining tissue homeostasis as well as pathological conditions, such as allergy, infectious disease, and cancer, by promoting type 1 and 2 immune responses. Through its specific receptor ST2, IL-33 exerts multifaceted functions through the activation of diverse intracellular signaling pathways. ST2 is expressed in different types of immune cells, including Th2 cells, Th1 cells, CD8⁺ T cells, regulatory T cells (T_reg), cytotoxic NK cells, group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), and myeloid cells. During cancer initiation and progression, the aberrant regulation of the IL-33/ST2 axis in the tumor microenvironment (TME) extrinsically and intrinsically mediates immune editing via modulation of both innate and adaptive immune cell components. The summarized results in this review suggest that IL-33 exerts dual-functioning, pro- as well as anti-tumorigenic effects depending on the tumor type, expression levels, cellular context, and cytokine milieu. A better understanding of the distinct roles of IL-33 in epithelial, stromal, and immune cell compartments will benefit the development of a targeting strategy for this IL-33/ST2 axis for cancer immunotherapy.

IL-33/ST2 as a potential target for tumor immunotherapy

IL-33, a member of the IL-1 family, was initially reported to be expressed constitutively in the nucleus of tissue-lining and structural cells. However, upon tissue damage or injury, IL-33 can be released quickly to bind with its cognate receptor ST2 in response to wound healing and inflammation and act as a DAMP. As a key regulator of Th2 responses, IL-33/ST2 signal is primarily associated with immunity and immune-related disorders. In recent years, IL-33/ST2 signaling pathway has been reported to promote the development of cancer and remodel the tumor microenvironment by expanding immune suppressive cells such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells or regulatory T cells. However, its role remains controversial in some tumor settings. IL-33 could also promote effective infiltration of immune cells such as CD8⁺ T and NK cells, which act as antitumor. These dual effects may limit the clinical application to target this cytokine axis. Therefore, more comprehensive exploration and deeper understanding of IL-33 are required. In this review, we summarized the IL-33/ST2 axis versatile roles in the tumor microenvironment with a focus on the IL-33-target immune cells and downstream signaling pathways. We also discuss how the IL-33/ST2 axis could be used as a potential therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy.

Interleukin 33 mediates hepatocyte autophagy and innate immune response in the early phase of acetaminophen-induced acute liver injury

Despite interleukin 33 (IL-33) functions as an "alarmin" released from hepatic dead cells in response to tissue damages, the interrelationship between IL-33-mediated hepatocyte autophagy and innate immune response in the acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury (AILI) process remains obscure. This study aimed to explore the regulation of IL-33 on hepatocyte autophagy and macrophage polarization after APAP challenge in vivo and vitro. We found IL-33 released from hepatic necrosis was elevated in the AILI mouse model. Blockage of IL-33 exacerbated liver injury by consuming liver-resident macrophages cells (Kupffer cells, KCs) and promoting hepatic inflammatory factors secretion, such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in the early phase of liver injury. Interestingly, IL-33 deficiency further activated hepatocyte autophagy and disrupted M2 macrophage polarization post-APAP challenge in vivo and vitro, which can be reversed by recombinant IL-33 treatment. Mechanistically, administration of IL-33 can directly enhance M2 polarization via PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and activate protective hepatocyte autophagy via AMPKα/mTOR signaling pathway in the AILI process. In conclusion, our data firstly demonstrates that IL-33 exerts protective effects on hepatocytes through the activation of autophagy and functions as an innate immunity regulator mediating macrophage polarization in the early phase of AILI.

Immunopathobiology and therapeutic targets related to cytokines in liver diseases

Chronic liver injury with any etiology can progress to fibrosis and the end-stage diseases cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The progression of liver disease is controlled by a variety of factors, including liver injury, inflammatory cells, inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and the gut microbiome. In the current review, we discuss recent data on a large number of cytokines that play important roles in regulating liver injury, inflammation, fibrosis, and regeneration, with a focus on interferons and T helper (Th) 1, Th2, Th9, Th17, interleukin (IL)-1 family, IL-6 family, and IL-20 family cytokines. Hepatocytes can also produce certain cytokines (such as IL-7, IL-11, and IL-33), and the functions of these cytokines in the liver are briefly summarized. Several cytokines have great therapeutic potential, and some are currently being tested as therapeutic targets in clinical trials for the treatment of liver diseases, which are also described.

Development and Validation of a Combined Ferroptosis and Immune Prognostic Classifier for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Immunotherapy and sorafenib exert anti-tumor effects via ferroptosis, but reliable biomarkers for the individual treatment and prognosis prediction of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) based on the ferroptosis and immune status remain lacking.

Methods

Ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) were identified by downloading data from FerrDb and by searching and reading original articles from PubMed. Immune-related genes (IRGs) were downloaded from ImmPort. Prognostic FRGs and IRGs in the GSE14520 (n = 220) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA, n = 365) datasets were identified. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression and multivariate Cox regression were used for model construction. Ferroptosis expression profiles, the infiltration of immune cells, and the somatic mutation status were analyzed and compared.

Results

Twenty-seven prognostic ferroptosis- and immune-related signatures were included to construct a comprehensive index of ferroptosis and immune status (CIFI). A subgroup of patients was identified as having a high CIFI value, which was associated with a worse prognosis. This subgroup of patients had significantly up-regulated expressions of many suppressors of ferroptosis and higher fractions of immunosuppressive cells, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Notably, somatic mutation analysis indicated that high-CIFI patients had higher levels of tumor heterogeneity and higher mutation frequencies of genes like TP53.

Conclusion

In this work, a novel prognostic classifier was developed based on ferroptosis- and IRGs in HCC, and this classifier could be used for prognostic prediction and the selection of patients for immunotherapies and targeted therapies.

Exogenous interleukin-33 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma growth by remodelling the tumour microenvironment

Background

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is an effective inducer of pro-inflammatory cytokines regulating innate and adaptive immunity. Inflammation could be a double-edged sword, promoting or inhibiting tumour growth. To date, the roles and mechanisms of IL-33 in tumours remain controversial. Here, we examined the effect of exogenous IL-33 on the biological characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the possible mechanism of action.

Methods

In this study, IL-33 expression in the tissues of 69 HCC patients was detected and its relationship with prognosis was evaluated. After establishing a mouse HCC model and IL-33 treatment operation, the infiltration of splenic myeloid-derived suppressor (MDSCs), dendritic (DCs), regulatory T, and natural killer (NK) cells was detected by flow cytometry analysis, and the vascular density of the tumour tissues was detected by immunohistochemistry to reveal the mechanism of IL-33 in HCC proliferation. Finally, the Cancer Genome Atlas database was used to analyse Gene Ontology terms the and Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes pathway. Moreover, the chi-square test, two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-test, and multiple t-tests were performed using SPSS version 23.0 and GraphPad Prism 8.0 software.

Results

The IL-33 expression level was negatively correlated with the overall survival of HCC patients, suggesting its potential clinical significance in the prognosis of HCC. We found that systemic IL-33 administration significantly promoted the tumour size in vivo. Furthermore, the IL-33-treated mice presented decreased frequencies of tumouricidal NK and CD69⁺ CD8⁺ T cells. After IL-33 treatment, the incidence of monocytic MDSCs and conventional DCs increased, while that of granulocytic MDSCs decreased. Moreover, IL-33 promoted the formation of intracellular neovascularization. Therefore, IL-33 accelerated HCC progression by increasing the accumulation of immunosuppressive cells and neovascularization formation. Finally, we found that the transcription of IL-33 was closely related to the PI3K-Akt and MAPK pathways in Gene Set Enrichment Analysis plots, which were involved in the tumourigenesis and pathogenesis of HCC.

Conclusions

Taken together, IL-33 may be a key tumour promoter of HCC proliferation and tumourigenicity, an important mediator, and a potential therapeutic target for regulating HCC progression.

Anti-Tumorigenic Activities of IL-33: A Mechanistic Insight

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is an epithelial-derived cytokine that can be released upon tissue damage, stress, or infection, acting as an alarmin for the immune system. IL-33 has long been studied in the context of Th2-related immunopathologies, such as allergic diseases and parasitic infections. However, its capacity to stimulate also Th1-type of immune responses is now well established. IL-33 binds to its specific receptor ST2 expressed by most immune cell populations, modulating a variety of responses. In cancer immunity, IL-33 can display both pro-tumoral and anti-tumoral functions, depending on the specific microenvironment. Recent findings indicate that IL-33 can effectively stimulate immune effector cells (NK and CD8⁺ T cells), eosinophils, basophils and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) promoting direct and indirect anti-tumoral activities. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances on anti-tumor immune mechanisms operated by IL-33, including the modulation of immune checkpoint molecules, with the aim to understand its potential as a therapeutic target in cancer.

Atypical immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer: Deciphering the role of gut microbiome

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Much recent research has delved into understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of HCC pathogenesis, which has revealed to be heterogenous and complex. Two major hallmarks of HCC include: (i) a hijacked immunometabolism and (ii) a reprogramming in metabolic processes. We posit that the gut microbiota is a third component in an entanglement triangle contributing to HCC progression. Besides metagenomic studies highlighting the diagnostic potential in the gut microbiota profile, recent research is pinpointing the gut microbiota as an instigator, not just a mere bystander, in HCC. In this chapter, we discuss mechanistic insights on atypical immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming in HCC, including the examination of tumor-associated macrophages and neutrophils, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (e.g., T-cell exhaustion, regulatory T-cells, natural killer T-cells), the Warburg effect, rewiring of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and glutamine addiction. We further discuss the potential involvement of the gut microbiota in these characteristics of hepatocarcinogenesis. An immediate highlight is that microbiota metabolites (e.g., short chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids) can impair anti-tumor responses, which aggravates HCC. Lastly, we describe the rising 'new era' of immunotherapies (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive T-cell transfer) and discuss for the potential incorporation of gut microbiota targeted therapeutics (e.g., probiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation) to alleviate HCC. Altogether, this chapter invigorates for continuous research to decipher the role of gut microbiome in HCC from its influence on immunometabolism and metabolic reprogramming.

Fibroblast-Derived IL33 Facilitates Breast Cancer Metastasis by Modifying the Immune Microenvironment and Driving Type 2 Immunity

Lungs are one of the main sites of breast cancer metastasis. The metastatic microenvironment is essential to facilitate growth of disseminated tumor cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) are prominent players in the microenvironment of breast cancer. However, their role in the formation of a permissive metastatic niche is unresolved. Here we show that IL33 is upregulated in metastases-associated fibroblasts in mouse models of spontaneous breast cancer metastasis and in patients with breast cancer with lung metastasis. Upregulation of IL33 instigated type 2 inflammation in the metastatic microenvironment and mediated recruitment of eosinophils, neutrophils, and inflammatory monocytes to lung metastases. Importantly, targeting of IL33 in vivo resulted in inhibition of lung metastasis and significant attenuation of immune cell recruitment and type 2 immunity. These findings demonstrate a key function of IL33 in facilitating lung metastatic relapse by modulating the immune microenvironment. Our study shows a novel interaction axis between CAF and immune cells and reveals the central role of CAF in establishing a hospitable inflammatory niche in lung metastasis. SIGNIFICANCE: This study elucidates a novel role for fibroblast-derived IL33 in facilitating breast cancer lung metastasis by modifying the immune microenvironment at the metastatic niche toward type 2 inflammation.

Adaptive immune disorders in hypertension and heart failure: focusing on T-cell subset activation and clinical implications

: Hypertension is a growing health concern worldwide. Established hypertension is a causative factor of heart failure, which is characterized by increased vascular resistance and intractable uncontrolled blood pressure. Hypertension and heart failure have multiple causes and complex pathophysiology but cellular immunity is thought to contribute to the development of both. Recent studies showed that T cells play critical roles in hypertension and heart failure in humans and animals, with various stimuli leading to the formation of effector T cells that infiltrate the cardiovascular wall. Monocytes/macrophages also accumulate in the cardiovascular wall. Various cytokines (e.g. interleukin-6, interleukin-17, interleukin-10, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ) released from immune cells of various subtypes promote vascular senescence and elastic laminal degradation as well as cardiac fibrosis and/or hypertrophy, leading to cardiovascular structural alterations and dysfunction. Recent laboratory evidence has defined a link between inflammation and the immune system in initiation and progression of hypertension and heart failure. Moreover, cross-talk among natural killer cells, adaptive immune cells (T cells and B cells), and innate immune cells (i.e. monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells) contributes to end-cardiovasculature damage and dysfunction in hypertension and heart failure. Clinical and experimental studies on the diagnostic potential of T-cell subsets revealed that blood regulatory T cells, CD4 cells, CD8 T cells, and the ratio of CD4 to CD8 T cells show promise as biomarkers of hypertension and heart failure. Therapeutic interventions to suppress activation of these cells may prove beneficial in reducing end-organ damage and preventing consequences of cardiovascular failure, including hypertension of heart failure.

Novel nomograms based on immune and stromal scores for predicting the disease-free and overall survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma undergoing radical surgery

BACKGROUND

Stromal and immune cells play important roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development and progression. However, tools for predicting the prognosis of patients with HCC based on stromal and immune scores are not well established. We aimed to develop nomograms that predicted the disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) of patients after radical surgery.

METHODS

Basic information of 251 patients were retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Multivariate Cox analyses identified variables predicting the prognosis of patients. DFS and OS nomograms were constructed based on the stromal and immune scores of the training group and verified in the well-matched test group.

RESULTS

An intermediate stromal score (hazards ratio [HR] = 3.177; P < .001] was an independent risk factor for DFS. An intermediate immune score independently predicted a longer DFS (HR = 0.323; P = .002) and OS (HR = 0.305; P = .021); a high immune score predicted a longer DFS (HR = 0.289; P = .002). The concordance index (C-index) of nomograms was 0.729 for DFS and 0.696 for OS in the test group.

CONCLUSION

Nomograms based on the stromal and immune scores favorably predicted the DFS and OS of patients with HCC after radical surgery.

Translational Considerations to Improve Response and Overcome Therapy Resistance in Immunotherapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Over the last decade, progress in systemic therapies significantly improved the outcome of primary liver cancer. More recently, precision oncological and immunotherapeutic approaches became the focus of intense scientific and clinical research. Herein, preclinical studies showed promising results with high response rates and improvement of overall survival. However, results of phase III clinical trials revealed that only a subfraction of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients respond to therapy and display only moderate objective response rates. Further, predictive molecular characteristics are largely missing. In consequence, suitable trial design has emerged as a crucial factor for the success of a novel compound. In addition, increasing knowledge from translational studies indicate the importance of targeting the tumor immune environment to overcome resistance to immunotherapy. Thus, combination of different immunotherapies with other treatment modalities including antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, or local therapies is highly promising. However, the mechanisms of failure to respond to immunotherapy in liver cancer are still not fully understood and the modulation of the immune system and cellular tumor composition is particularly relevant in this context. Altogether, it is increasingly clear that tailoring of immunotherapy and individualized approaches are required to improve efficacy and patient outcome in liver cancer. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge as well as translational considerations to overcome therapy resistance in immunotherapy of primary liver cancer.

The IL-33/ST2 pathway suppresses murine colon cancer growth and metastasis by upregulating CD40 L signaling

Interleukin (IL)-33 is a member of the IL-1 family, participating in both helper T1 (Th1)- and Th2-type immune responses, but its ambiguous effects on tumor growth and related immune mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we report that recombinant mouse IL-33 (mIL-33) significantly inhibited colon cancer growth and metastasis to lung and liver in a murine CT26 or MC38 tumor-cell engraftment model. This effect could be associated with CD4⁺ T cells and CD40 L signaling, as depletion of CD4⁺ T cells or blocking CD40 L signaling in vivo partly abolished the antitumor function of IL-33. In addition, IL-33 treatment upregulated CD40 L expression on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and promoted the activation of CD4⁺ T, CD8⁺ T and natural killer cells via CD40 L signaling. Furthermore, IL-33 was sufficient to induce the ST2 expression on CD4⁺ T cells, but not on CD8⁺ T and natural killer cells, indicating that IL-33 acted on CD4⁺ T cells via a positive-feedback loop. Our findings shed new light on the IL-33-mediated antitumor effects and mechanisms of Th1 action, and also suggest that IL-33 may serve as an activator to boost anticancer immune responses in singular or combinatory therapies.

Systematic review of the roles of interleukins in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary liver cancer with high morbidity and mortality that is often accompanied by immune system disorders and local lymphocyte infiltration. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, cancer cells, stromal cells, and the numerous cytokines they produce, such as chemokines, interferons, tumor necrosis factors, and interleukins, collectively constitute the tumor microenvironment. As a main type of immune effector, interleukin plays opposing roles in regulating tumor cell progression, adhesion, and migration according to its different subtypes. Many reports have concentrated on the roles that interleukins play in HCC, but understanding them systematically remains challenging. This study reviewed the current data to comprehensively summarize the relationships between HCC progression and human interleukin gene families.

ST2 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment

Suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (ST2), also known as interleukin-1 receptor-like 1 (IL1RL1), is one of the natural receptors of IL-33. Three major isoforms, ST2L (transmembrane form), sST2 (soluble form), and ST2V, are generated by alternative splicing. Damage to stromal cells induces necrosis and release of IL-33, which binds to heterodimeric ST2L/IL-1RAcP complex on the membrane of a variety of immune cells. This IL-33/ST2L signal induces transcription of the downstream inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes by activating diverse intracellular kinases and factors to mount an adequate immune response, even in tumor microenvironment. For example, activation of IL-33/ST2L signal may trigger Th2-dependent M2 macrophage polarization to facilitate tumor progression. Notably, sST2 is a soluble form of ST2 that lacks a transmembrane domain but preserves an extracellular domain similar to ST2L, which acts as a "decoy" receptor for IL-33. sST2 has been shown to involve in the inflammatory tumor microenvironment and the progression of colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and gastric cancer. Therefore, targeting the IL-33/ST2 axis becomes a promising new immunotherapy for treatment of many cancers. This chapter reviews the recent findings on IL-33/ST2L signaling in tumor microenvironment, the trafficking mode of sST2, and the pharmacological strategies to target IL-33/ST2 axis for cancer treatment.

Molecular links between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its advanced complication, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), have become leading causes of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. In this review, we discuss the role of metabolic, gut microbial, immune and endocrine mediators which promote the progression of NAFLD to HCC. In particular, this progression involves multiple hits resulting from lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, inhibition of hepatic autophagy and inflammation. Furthermore, dysbiosis in the gut associated with obesity also promotes HCC via induction of proinflammatory cytokines and Toll like receptor signalling as well as altered bile metabolism. Additionally, compromised T-cell function and impaired hepatic hormonal action promote the development of NASH-associated HCC. Lastly, we discuss the current challenges involved in the diagnosis and treatment of NAFLD/NASH-associated HCC.

Comprehensive characterization of the alternative splicing landscape in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma reveals novel events associated with tumorigenesis and the immune microenvironment

Alternative splicing (AS) has emerged as a key event in tumor development and microenvironment formation. However, comprehensive analysis of AS and its clinical significance in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSC) is urgently required. Methods: Genome-wide profiling of AS events using RNA-Seq data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) program was performed in a cohort of 464 patients with HNSC. Cancer-associated AS events (CASEs) were identified between paired HNSC and adjacent normal tissues and evaluated in functional enrichment analysis. Splicing networks and prognostic models were constructed using bioinformatics tools. Unsupervised clustering of the CASEs identified was conducted and associations with clinical, molecular and immune features were analyzed. Results: We detected a total of 32,309 AS events and identified 473 CASEs in HNSC; among these, 91 were validated in an independent cohort (n = 15). Functional protein domains were frequently altered, especially by CASEs affecting cancer drivers, such as PCSK5. CASE parent genes were significantly enriched in pathways related to HNSC and the tumor immune microenvironment, such as the viral carcinogenesis (FDR < 0.001), Human Papillomavirus infection (FDR < 0.001), chemokine (FDR < 0.001) and T cell receptor (FDR < 0.001) signaling pathways. CASEs enriched in immune-related pathways were closely associated with immune cell infiltration and cytolytic activity. AS regulatory networks suggested a significant association between splicing factor (SF) expression and CASEs and might be regulated by SF methylation. Eighteen CASEs were identified as independent prognostic factors for overall and disease-free survival. Unsupervised clustering analysis revealed distinct correlations between AS-based clusters and prognosis, molecular characteristics and immune features. Immunogenic features and immune subgroups cooperatively depict the immune features of AS-based clusters. Conclusion: This comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the AS landscape in HNSC revealed novel AS events related to carcinogenesis and immune microenvironment, with implications for prognosis and therapeutic responses.

Interleukin-1 and Related Cytokines in the Regulation of Inflammation and Immunity

Forty years after its naming, interleukin-1 (IL-1) is experiencing a renaissance brought on by the growing understanding of its context-dependent roles and advances in the clinic. Recent studies have identified important roles for members of the IL-1 family-IL-18, IL-33, IL-36, IL-37, and IL-38-in inflammation and immunity. Here, we review the complex functions of IL-1 family members in the orchestration of innate and adaptive immune responses and their diversity and plasticity. We discuss the varied roles of IL-1 family members in immune homeostasis and their contribution to pathologies, including autoimmunity and auto-inflammation, dysmetabolism, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer. The trans-disease therapeutic activity of anti-IL-1 strategies argues for immunity and inflammation as a metanarrative of modern medicine.

Innate lymphoid cells in intestinal cancer development

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a highly prominent cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Although the functions of immune cells in the colorectal tumor microenvironment are complex and heterogeneous, dysregulated changes in the composition and activation state of immune cells are believed to represent key events supporting the establishment of pro- or anti-tumorigenic immune states. Recently, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) emerged as central innate immune mediators during both gastrointestinal homeostasis and inflammatory pathologies. Hence, ILCs might also represent promising targets in the context of cancer therapy and are increasingly recognized as innate immune cells with potent immunomodulatory properties. In this review, we summarize the pleiotropic roles of the different ILC subsets for intestinal homeostasis and discuss the recent evidence on their potential involvement in the development and growth of intestinal cancers.