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Phan P, Deshwal A, McMahon TA, Slikas M, Andrews E, Becker B, Kumar TKS. A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:2. [PMID: 38276526 PMCID: PMC10818703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Anant Deshwal
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Tyler Anthony McMahon
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Matthew Slikas
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Elodie Andrews
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Brian Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
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Grewal S, Gonçalves de Andrade E, Kofoed RH, Matthews PM, Aubert I, Tremblay MÈ, Morse SV. Using focused ultrasound to modulate microglial structure and function. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1290628. [PMID: 38164436 PMCID: PMC10757935 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1290628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Transcranial focused ultrasound (FUS) has the unique ability to target regions of the brain with high spatial precision, in a minimally invasive manner. Neuromodulation studies have shown that FUS can excite or inhibit neuronal activity, demonstrating its tremendous potential to improve the outcome of neurological diseases. Recent evidence has also shed light on the emerging promise that FUS has, with and without the use of intravenously injected microbubbles, in modulating the blood-brain barrier and the immune cells of the brain. As the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, microglia are at the forefront of the brain's maintenance and immune defense. Notably, microglia are highly dynamic and continuously survey the brain parenchyma by extending and retracting their processes. This surveillance activity aids microglia in performing key physiological functions required for brain activity and plasticity. In response to stressors, microglia rapidly alter their cellular and molecular profile to help facilitate a return to homeostasis. While the underlying mechanisms by which both FUS and FUS + microbubbles modify microglial structure and function remain largely unknown, several studies in adult mice have reported changes in the expression of the microglia/macrophage marker ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1, and in their phagocytosis, notably of protein aggregates, such as amyloid beta. In this review, we discuss the demonstrated and putative biological effects of FUS and FUS + microbubbles in modulating microglial activities, with an emphasis on the key cellular and molecular changes observed in vitro and in vivo across models of brain health and disease. Understanding how this innovative technology can modulate microglia paves the way for future therapeutic strategies aimed to promote beneficial physiological microglial roles, and prevent or treat maladaptive responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarina Grewal
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elisa Gonçalves de Andrade
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Rikke Hahn Kofoed
- Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Experimental Neuroscience-CENSE, Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Paul M. Matthews
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sophie V. Morse
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Xhima K, Markham-Coultes K, Kofoed RH, Saragovi HU, Hynynen K, Aubert I. Ultrasound delivery of a TrkA agonist confers neuroprotection to Alzheimer-associated pathologies. Brain 2021; 145:2806-2822. [PMID: 34919633 PMCID: PMC9420023 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Early degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) contributes substantially to cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Evidence from preclinical models of neuronal injury and aging support a pivotal role for nerve growth factor (NGF) in neuroprotection, resilience, and cognitive function. However, whether NGF can provide therapeutic benefit in the presence of AD-related pathologies remains unresolved. Perturbations in the NGF signaling system in AD may render neurons unable to benefit from NGF administration. Additionally, challenges related to brain delivery remain for clinical translation of NGF-based therapies in AD. To be safe and efficient, NGF-related agents should stimulate the NGF receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA), avoid activation through the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), and be delivered non-invasively to targeted brain areas using real-time monitoring. We addressed these limitations using MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS) to increase blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability locally and transiently, allowing an intravenously administered TrkA agonist that does not activate p75NTR, termed D3, to enter targeted brain areas. Here, we report the therapeutic potential of selective TrkA activation in a transgenic mouse model that recapitulates numerous AD-associated pathologies. Repeated MRIgFUS-mediated delivery of D3 (D3/FUS) improved cognitive function in the TgCRND8 model of AD. Mechanistically, D3/FUS treatment effectively attenuated cholinergic degeneration and promoted functional recovery. D3/FUS treatment also resulted in widespread reduction of brain amyloid pathology and dystrophic neurites surrounding amyloid plaques. Furthermore, D3/FUS markedly enhanced hippocampal neurogenesis in TgCRND8 mice, implicating TrkA agonism as a novel therapeutic target to promote neurogenesis in the context of AD-related pathology. Thus, this study provides evidence that selective TrkA agonism confers neuroprotection to effectively counteract AD-related vulnerability. Recent clinical trials demonstrate that non-invasive BBB modulation using MRIgFUS is safe, feasible and reversible in AD patients. TrkA receptor agonists coupled with MRIgFUS delivery constitute a promising disease-modifying strategy to foster brain health and counteract cognitive decline in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiana Xhima
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Kelly Markham-Coultes
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Rikke Hahn Kofoed
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - H. Uri Saragovi
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H4A 3S5, Canada
| | - Kullervo Hynynen
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Isabelle Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
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Xhima K, McMahon D, Ntiri E, Goubran M, Hynynen K, Aubert I. Intravenous and Non-invasive Drug Delivery to the Mouse Basal ForebrainUsing MRI-guided Focused Ultrasound. Bio Protoc 2021; 11:e4056. [PMID: 34262999 PMCID: PMC8260260 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) regulate circuit dynamics underlying cognitive processing, including attention, memory, and cognitive flexibility. In Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative conditions, the degeneration of BFCNs has long been considered a key player in cognitive decline. The cholinergic system thus represents a key therapeutic target. A long-standing obstacle for the development of effective cholinergic-based therapies is not only the production of biologically active compounds but also a platform for safe and efficient drug delivery to the basal forebrain. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) presents a significant challenge for drug delivery to the brain, excluding approximately 98% of small-molecule biologics and nearly 100% of large-molecule therapeutic agents from entry into the brain parenchyma. Current modalities to achieve effective drug delivery to deep brain structures, such as the basal forebrain, are particularly limited. Direct intracranial injection via a needle or catheter carries risks associated with invasive neurosurgery. Intra-arterial injection of hyperosmotic solutions or therapeutics modified to penetrate the BBB using endogenous transport systems lack regional specificity, which may not always be desirable. Intranasal, intrathecal, and intraventricular administration have limited drug distribution beyond the brain surface. Here, we present a protocol for non-invasively, locally, and transiently increasing BBB permeability using MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS) in the murine basal forebrain for delivery of therapeutic agents targeting the cholinergic system. Ongoing work in preclinical models and clinical trials supports the safety and feasibility of MRIgFUS-mediated BBB modulation as a promising drug delivery modality for the treatment of debilitating neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiana Xhima
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Dallan McMahon
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Edward Ntiri
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
| | - Maged Goubran
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kullervo Hynynen
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Isabelle Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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