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Naqvi RA, Valverde A, Yadavalli T, Bobat FI, Capistrano KJ, Shukla D, Naqvi AR. Viral MicroRNAs in Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Pathobiology. Curr Pharm Des 2024; 30:649-665. [PMID: 38347772 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128286469240129100313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Simplexvirus humanalpha1 (Herpes simplex virus type 1 [HSV-1]) infects millions of people globally, manifesting as vesiculo-ulcerative lesions of the oral or genital mucosa. After primary infection, the virus establishes latency in the peripheral neurons and reactivates sporadically in response to various environmental and genetic factors. A unique feature of herpesviruses is their ability to encode tiny noncoding RNAs called microRNA (miRNAs). Simplexvirus humanalpha1 encodes eighteen miRNA precursors that generate twentyseven different mature miRNA sequences. Unique Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs repertoire is expressed in lytic and latent stages and exhibits expressional disparity in various cell types and model systems, suggesting their key pathological functions. This review will focus on elucidating the mechanisms underlying the regulation of host-virus interaction by HSV-1 encoded viral miRNAs. Numerous studies have demonstrated sequence- specific targeting of both viral and host transcripts by Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs. While these noncoding RNAs predominantly target viral genes involved in viral life cycle switch, they regulate host genes involved in antiviral immunity, thereby facilitating viral evasion and lifelong viral persistence inside the host. Expression of Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs has been associated with disease progression and resolution. Systemic circulation and stability of viral miRNAs compared to viral mRNAs can be harnessed to utilize their potential as diagnostic and prognostic markers. Moreover, functional inhibition of these enigmatic molecules may allow us to devise strategies that have therapeutic significance to contain Simplexvirus humanalpha1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raza Ali Naqvi
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Araceli Valverde
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Tejabhiram Yadavalli
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Fatima Ismail Bobat
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Kristelle J Capistrano
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Afsar R Naqvi
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
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Bauer AN, Majumdar N, Williams F, Rajput S, Pokhrel LR, Cook PP, Akula SM. MicroRNAs: Small but Key Players in Viral Infections and Immune Responses to Viral Pathogens. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1334. [PMID: 37887044 PMCID: PMC10604607 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs) in C. elegans in 1993, the field of miRNA research has grown steeply. These single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules canonically work at the post-transcriptional phase to regulate protein expression. miRNAs are known to regulate viral infection and the ensuing host immune response. Evolving research suggests miRNAs are assets in the discovery and investigation of therapeutics and diagnostics. In this review, we succinctly summarize the latest findings in (i) mechanisms underpinning miRNA regulation of viral infection, (ii) miRNA regulation of host immune response to viral pathogens, (iii) miRNA-based diagnostics and therapeutics targeting viral pathogens and challenges, and (iv) miRNA patents and the market landscape. Our findings show the differential expression of miRNA may serve as a prognostic biomarker for viral infections in regard to predicting the severity or adverse health effects associated with viral diseases. While there is huge market potential for miRNA technology, the novel approach of using miRNA mimics to enhance antiviral activity or antagonists to inhibit pro-viral miRNAs has been an ongoing research endeavor. Significant hurdles remain in terms of miRNA delivery, stability, efficacy, safety/tolerability, and specificity. Addressing these challenges may pave a path for harnessing the full potential of miRNAs in modern medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anais N. Bauer
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Niska Majumdar
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Frank Williams
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Smit Rajput
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Lok R. Pokhrel
- Department of Public Health, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Paul P. Cook
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Shaw M. Akula
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
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Lince KC, DeMario VK, Yang GT, Tran RT, Nguyen DT, Sanderson JN, Pittman R, Sanchez RL. A Systematic Review of Second-Line Treatments in Antiviral Resistant Strains of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV. Cureus 2023; 15:e35958. [PMID: 37041924 PMCID: PMC10082683 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.35958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug-resistant variants of herpes simplex viruses (HSV) have been reported that are not effectively treated with first-line antiviral agents. The objective of this study was to evaluate available literature on the possible efficacy of second-line treatments in HSV and the use of second-line treatments in HSV strains that are resistant to first-line treatments. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a final search was conducted in six databases on November 5, 2021 for all relevant literature using terms related to antiviral resistance, herpes, and HSV. Eligible manuscripts were required to report the presence of an existing or proposed second-line treatment for HSV-1, HSV-2, or varicella zoster virus (VZV); have full-text English-language access; and potentially reduce the rate of antiviral resistance. Following screening, 137 articles were included in qualitative synthesis. Of the included studies, articles that examined the relationship between viral resistance to first-line treatments and potential second-line treatments in HSV were included. The Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials was used to assess risk of bias. Due to the heterogeneity of study designs, a meta-analysis of the studies was not performed. The dates in which accepted studies were published spanned from 2015-2021. In terms of sample characteristics, the majority (72.26%) of studies used Vero cells. When looking at the viruses on which the interventions were tested, the majority (84.67%) used HSV-1, with (34.31%) of these studies reporting testing on resistant HSV strains. Regarding the effectiveness of the proposed interventions, 91.97% were effective as potential managements for resistant strains of HSV. Of the papers reviewed, nectin in 2.19% of the reviews had efficacy as a second-line treatments in HSV, amenamevir in 2.19%, methanol extract in 2.19%, monoclonal antibodies in 1.46%, arbidol in 1.46%, siRNA swarms in 1.46%, Cucumis melo sulfated pectin in 1.46%, and components from Olea europeae in 1.46%. In addition to this griffithsin in 1.46% was effective, Morus alba L. in 1.46%, using nucleosides in 1.46%, botryosphaeran in 1.46%, monoterpenes in 1.46%, almond skin extracts in 1.46%, bortezomib in 1.46%, flavonoid compounds in 1.46%, andessential oils were effective in 1.46%, but not effective in 0.73%. The available literature reviewed consistently supports the existence and potentiality of second-line treatments for HSV strains that are resistant to first-line treatments. Immunocompromised patients have been noted to be the population most often affected by drug-resistant variants of HSV. Subsequently, we found that HSV infections in this patient population are challenging to manage clinically effectively. The goal of this systematic review is to provide additional information to patients on the potentiality of second-line treatment in HSV strains resistant to first-line treatments, especially those who are immunocompromised. All patients, whether they are immunocompromised or not, deserve to have their infections clinically managed in a manner supported by comprehensive research. This review provides necessary information about treatment options for patients with resistant HSV infections and their providers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly C Lince
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Virgil K DeMario
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - George T Yang
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Rita T Tran
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Daniel T Nguyen
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Jacob N Sanderson
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Rachel Pittman
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
| | - Rebecca L Sanchez
- Department of Clinically Applied Science Education, University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine, San Antonio, USA
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Khalili M, Rahimi Hajiabadi H, Akbari M, Nasr Esfahani B, Saleh R, Moghim S. Viral aetiology of acute central nervous system infections in children, Iran. J Med Microbiol 2022; 71. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Viral infections are increasingly an important cause of central nervous system (CNS) complications.
Hypothesis/Gap Statement. There is no comprehensive insight about CNS infections due to viral agents among Iranian children.
Aim. This study aimed to investigate the viral aetiology, clinical and epidemiological profile of children with acute infections of the CNS.
Methodology. A prospective study was conducted on children at the referral hospital in Isfahan, Iran, from June 2019 to June 2020. A multiplex PCR assay was used to detect the viral causative agent in cerebrospinal fluid and throat/rectal swab samples.
Results. Among 103 patients with eligible criteria, a confirmed or probable viral aetiology was detected in 41 (39.8 %) patients, including enteroviruses – 56.1 %, herpes simplex virus 1/2 (HSV-1/2) – 31.7 %, Epstein-Barr virus – 17.1 %, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) – 9.7 %, influenza A virus (H1N1) –4.9 % and mumps – 2.4 %. There was a higher proportion of PCR-positive samples in infants than in other age groups. Encephalitis and meningoencephalitis were diagnosed in 68.3 % (28/41) and 22 % (9/41) PCR-positive cases, respectively.
Conclusion. The findings of this research provide insights into the clinical and viral aetiological patterns of acute CNS infections in Iran, and the importance of molecular methods to identify CNS viruses. HSV and VZV were identified as important causes of encephalitis in young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Khalili
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Hamid Rahimi Hajiabadi
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Akbari
- Isfahan Endocrine and Metabolism Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Bahram Nasr Esfahani
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Rana Saleh
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sharareh Moghim
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Fernández-Pato A, Virseda-Berdices A, Resino S, Ryan P, Martínez-González O, Peréz-García F, Martin-Vicente M, Valle-Millares D, Brochado-Kith O, Blancas R, Martínez A, Ceballos FC, Bartolome-Sánchez S, Vidal-Alcántara EJ, Alonso D, Blanca-López N, Martinez-Acitores IR, Martin-Pedraza L, Jiménez-Sousa MÁ, Fernández-Rodríguez A. Plasma miRNA profile at COVID-19 onset predicts severity status and mortality. Emerg Microbes Infect 2022; 11:676-688. [PMID: 35130828 PMCID: PMC8890551 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2038021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have a crucial role in regulating immune response against infectious diseases, showing changes early in disease onset and before the detection of the pathogen. Thus, we aimed to analyze the plasma miRNA profile at COVID-19 onset to identify miRNAs as early prognostic biomarkers of severity and survival. METHODS AND RESULTS Plasma miRNome of 96 COVID-19 patients that developed asymptomatic/mild, moderate and severe disease was sequenced together with a group of healthy controls. Plasma immune-related biomarkers were also assessed. COVID-19 patients showed 200 significant differentially expressed (SDE) miRNAs concerning healthy controls, with upregulated putative targets of SARS-CoV-2, and inflammatory miRNAs. Among COVID-19 patients, 75 SDE miRNAs were observed in asymptomatic/mild compared to symptomatic patients, which were involved in platelet aggregation and cytokine pathways, among others. Moreover, 137 SDE miRNAs were identified between severe and moderate patients, where miRNAs targeting the SARS CoV-2 genome were the most strongly disrupted. Finally, we constructed a mortality predictive risk score (miRNA-MRS) with ten miRNAs. Patients with higher values had a higher risk of 90-days mortality (hazard ratio=4.60; p-value<0.001). Besides, the discriminant power of miRNA-MRS was significantly higher than the observed for age and gender (AUROC=0.970 vs. 0.881; p=0.042). CONCLUSIONS SARS-CoV-2 infection deeply disturbs the plasma miRNome from an early stage of COVID-19, making miRNAs highly valuable as early predictors of severity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asier Fernández-Pato
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ana Virseda-Berdices
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Salvador Resino
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Ryan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain.,School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Gregorio Marañón Health Research Institute, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Felipe Peréz-García
- Clinical Microbiology Department, Hospital Universitario Príncipe de Asturias, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - María Martin-Vicente
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Valle-Millares
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Oscar Brochado-Kith
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Blancas
- Critical Care Department, Hospital Universitario del Tajo, Aranjuez, Spain
| | - Amalia Martínez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco C Ceballos
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sofía Bartolome-Sánchez
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Erick Joan Vidal-Alcántara
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Alonso
- Internal Medicine Service, Hospital Universitario Príncipe de Asturias, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | | | | | - Laura Martin-Pedraza
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Jiménez-Sousa
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Amanda Fernández-Rodríguez
- Unit of Viral Infection and Immunity, National Center for Microbiology CNM, Health Institute Carlos III ISCIII, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
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Potential antiviral agents of Rosmarinus officinalis extract against herpes viruses 1 and 2. Biosci Rep 2021; 40:225081. [PMID: 32469389 PMCID: PMC7286877 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20200992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) belong to the herpesviridae family and cause neurological disorders by infecting the nervous system. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) extract against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro. The antioxidant activity of this extract was investigated by superoxide anion and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical assays. Rosemary extract was evaluated by an HSV-1 antiviral assay, in which viral replication in Vero cells was determined and quantified using a cytopathic effect assay. The present study showed that rosemary extract at 30 µg/ml caused 55% inhibition of HSV-1 plaques, whereas 40 µg/ml rosemary extract caused 65% inhibition of HSV-2 plaques. The extracts completely inhibited HSV-1 and HSV-2 plaque formation at 50 µg/ml. Scavenging activity of the superoxide anion radical was observed at 65.74 mg/ml, whereas 50% scavenging activity of the DPPH radical was observed at 67.34 mg/ml. These data suggest that rosemary extract may be suitable as a topical prophylactic or therapeutic agent for herpes viral infections. However, further research is required to elucidate the plant’s active constituents, which may be useful in drug development.
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Sadegh Ehdaei B, Pirouzmand A, Shabani M, Mirzaei A, Moghim S. Cellular miR-101-1 Reduces Efficiently the Replication of HSV-1 in HeLa Cells. Intervirology 2021; 64:88-95. [PMID: 33626544 DOI: 10.1159/000512956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) are widely distributed in the human population. HSV type 1 (HSV-1) is responsible for a spectrum of diseases, ranging from gingivostomatitis to keratoconjunctivitis, and encephalitis. The HSVs establish latent infections in nerve cells, and recurrences are common. Their frequent reactivation in elderly and immunosuppressed patients causes serious health complications. OBJECTIVES Due to the growing resistance to its main drug, acyclovir, alternative treatments with different mechanisms of action are required. MicroRNAs regulate host and viral gene expression posttranscriptionally. Previous studies reported that mir-101-2 expression has widely participated in the regulation of HSV-1 replication. In this study, we investigate the effect of hsa-miR-101-1 in the replication of HSV-1. METHODS We found that transfection of miR-101-1 into HeLa cells could reduce effectively HSV-1 replication using plaque assay and real-time PCR methods. RESULTS We showed that overexpression of miR-10-1 produced less viral progeny and manifested a weaker cytopathic effect, without affecting cell viability. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION This result can give us new insights into the control of HSV-1 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahar Sadegh Ehdaei
- Department of Microbiology, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Pirouzmand
- Department of Microbiology, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.,Autoimmune Diseases Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shabani
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Arezoo Mirzaei
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sharareh Moghim
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran,
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MicroRNA Profiles in Monocyte-Derived Macrophages Generated by Interleukin-27 and Human Serum: Identification of a Novel HIV-Inhibiting and Autophagy-Inducing MicroRNA. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031290. [PMID: 33525571 PMCID: PMC7865382 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-27 (IL-27) is a pleiotropic cytokine that influences the innate and adaptive immune systems. It inhibits viral infection and regulates the expression of microRNAs (miRNAs). We recently reported that macrophages differentiated from human primary monocytes in the presence of IL-27 and human AB serum resisted human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and showed significant autophagy induction. In the current study, the miRNA profiles in these cells were investigated, especially focusing on the identification of novel miRNAs regulated by IL-27-treatment. The miRNA sequencing analysis detected 38 novel miRNAs. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis confirmed that IL-27 differentially regulated the expression of 16 of the 38 miRNAs. Overexpression of the synthesized miRNA mimics by transfection revealed that miRAB40 had potent HIV-inhibiting and autophagy-inducing properties. B18R, an interferon (IFN)-neutralization protein, partially suppressed both activities, indicating that the two functions were induced via IFN-dependent and -independent pathways. Although the target mRNA(s) of miRAB40 involving in the induction of both functions was unable to identify in this study, the discovery of miRAB40, a potential HIV-inhibiting and autophagy inducing miRNA, may provide novel insights into the miRNA (small none-coding RNA)-mediated regulation of HIV inhibition and autophagy induction as an innate immune response.
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Immune Response to Herpes Simplex Virus Infection and Vaccine Development. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8020302. [PMID: 32545507 PMCID: PMC7350219 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are among the most common viral infections and usually last for a lifetime. The virus can potentially be controlled with vaccines since humans are the only known host. However, despite the development and trial of many vaccines, this has not yet been possible. This is normally attributed to the high latency potential of the virus. Numerous immune cells, particularly the natural killer cells and interferon gamma and pathways that are used by the body to fight HSV infections have been identified. On the other hand, the virus has developed different mechanisms, including using different microRNAs to inhibit apoptosis and autophagy to avoid clearance and aid latency induction. Both traditional and new methods of vaccine development, including the use of live attenuated vaccines, replication incompetent vaccines, subunit vaccines and recombinant DNA vaccines are now being employed to develop an effective vaccine against the virus. We conclude that this review has contributed to a better understanding of the interplay between the immune system and the virus, which is necessary for the development of an effective vaccine against HSV.
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