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Trif C, Harpaz D, Eltzov E, Parcharoen Y, Pechyen C, Marks RS. Detection of Cannabinoids in Oral Fluid Specimens as the Preferred Biological Matrix for a Point-of-Care Biosensor Diagnostic Device. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:126. [PMID: 38534233 DOI: 10.3390/bios14030126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
An increasing number of countries have started to decriminalize or legalize the consumption of cannabis for recreational and medical purposes. The active ingredients in cannabis, termed cannabinoids, affect multiple functions in the human body, including coordination, motor skills, memory, response time to external stimuli, and even judgment. Cannabinoids are a unique class of terpeno-phenolic compounds, with 120 molecules discovered so far. There are certain situations when people under the influence of cannabis may be a risk to themselves or the public safety. Over the past two decades, there has been a growing research interest in detecting cannabinoids from various biological matrices. There is a need to develop a rapid, accurate, and reliable method of detecting cannabinoids in oral fluid as it can reveal the recent intake in comparison with urine specimens, which only show a history of consumption. Significant improvements are continuously made in the analytical formats of various technologies, mainly concerning improving their sensitivity, miniaturization, and making them more user-friendly. Additionally, sample collection and pretreatment have been extensively studied, and specific devices for collecting oral fluid specimens have been perfected to allow rapid and effective sample collection. This review presents the recent findings regarding the use of oral fluid specimens as the preferred biological matrix for cannabinoid detection in a point-of-care biosensor diagnostic device. A critical review is presented, discussing the findings from a collection of review and research articles, as well as publicly available data from companies that manufacture oral fluid screening devices. Firstly, the various conventional methods used to detect cannabinoids in biological matrices are presented. Secondly, the detection of cannabinoids using point-of-care biosensors is discussed, emphasizing oral fluid specimens. This review presents the current pressing technological challenges and highlights the gaps where new technological solutions can be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Călin Trif
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Dorin Harpaz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Fruit, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Evgeni Eltzov
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Fruit, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Yardnapar Parcharoen
- Chulabhorn International College of Medicine, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Chiravoot Pechyen
- Center of Excellence in Modern Technology and Advanced Manufacturing for Medical Innovation, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
- Department of Materials and Textile Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Klong Luang 12120, Pathum Thani, Thailand
| | - Robert S Marks
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
- The Ilse Katz Center for Meso and Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
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Analysis of cannabinoids in conventional and alternative biological matrices by liquid chromatography: Applications and challenges. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1651:462277. [PMID: 34091369 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is by far the most widely abused illicit drug globe wide. The analysis of its main psychoactive components in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices has recently gained a great attention in forensic toxicology. Literature states that its abuse causes neurocognitive impairment in the domains of attention and memory, possible macrostructural brain alterations and abnormalities of neural functioning. This suggests the necessity for the development of a sensitive and a reliable analytical method for the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in human biological specimens. In this review, we focus on a number of analytical methods that have, so far, been developed and validated, with particular attention to the new "golden standard" method of forensic analysis, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, this review provides an overview of the effective and selective methods used for the extraction and isolation of cannabinoids from (i) conventional matrices, such as blood, urine and oral fluid and (ii) alternative biological matrices, such as hair, cerumen and meconium.
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THC and CBD concentrations in blood, oral fluid and urine following a single and repeated administration of “light cannabis”. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 58:682-689. [DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2019-0119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
AbstractBackground“Light cannabis” is a product legally sold in Europe with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration lower than 0.2% and variable cannabidiol (CBD) content. We studied THC and CBD excretion profiles in blood, oral fluid (OF) and urine after smoking one or four light cannabis cigarettes.MethodsBlood, OF and urine samples were obtained from six healthy light cannabis consumers after smoking one 1 g cigarette containing 0.16% THC and 5.8% CBD and from six others after smoking four 1 g cigarettes within 4 h. Sample collection began 0.5 and 4.5 h after smoking one or four cigarettes, respectively. Cannabinoid concentrations were quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).ResultsAt the first collection, the highest THC and CBD concentrations occurred in blood (THC 7.0–10.8 ng/mL; CBD 30.2–56.1 ng/mL) and OF (THC 5.1–15.5 ng/mL; CBD 14.2–28.1 ng/mL); similar results occurred 0.5 h after the last of four cigarettes in blood (THC 14.1–18.2 ng/mL, and CBD 25.6–45.4 ng/mL) and OF (THC 11.2–24.3 ng/mL; CBD 14.4–37.0 ng/mL). The mean OF to blood ratio ranged from 0.6 to 1.2 after one and 0.6 to 1.9 after four light cannabis cigarettes. THC/CBD ratios in blood and OF were never greater than 2. Urinary 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC concentrations peaked 8 h after one and four cigarettes.ConclusionsOF was a valuable alternative to blood in monitoring consumption of light cannabis. Blood and OF THC/CBD concentration ratios, never exceeded 2, possibly providing a useful biomarker to identify light cannabis vs illegal higher THC cannabis use, where THC/CBD ratios are generally greater than 10.
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Nie B, Henion J, Ryona I. The Role of Mass Spectrometry in the Cannabis Industry. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2019; 30:719-730. [PMID: 30993637 PMCID: PMC6502781 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-019-02164-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The focus of this critical insight article is a brief overview of analytical challenges the cannabis industry faces and how analytical chemists have new opportunities to demonstrate the merits of employing mass spectrometry for the chemical analysis of cannabis and its products. The current range of cannabis products extends from recreational use to medicines, edibles, beverages, and beyond. The standards employed to assure product quality, integrity, and safety are lacking compared to those currently used by the pharmaceutical, food, and beverage industries. This manuscript overviews some of the important analytical issues that exist for the growth and harvest of the cannabis plant to the production of a wide variety of its products. Currently, the topics of interest for safety in cannabis testing where mass spectrometry can play an important role include what are currently referred to as potency, pesticides, terpenes, heavy metals, and mycotoxins from bacteria. Since each state in the USA as well as several countries has their own regulations, the analytical opportunities and challenges vary depending upon which jurisdiction a laboratory is supporting. This Critical Insight report will suggest where mass spectrometry can play an important role and provide valuable input on these topics. Graphical Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Nie
- Advion, Inc., 61 Brown Rd., Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Jack Henion
- Advion, Inc., 61 Brown Rd., Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA.
- Q2 Solutions, LLC, 19 Brown Rd., Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA.
| | - Imelda Ryona
- Q2 Solutions, LLC, 19 Brown Rd., Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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Fodor B, Molnár-Perl I. The role of derivatization techniques in the analysis of plant cannabinoids by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Parnes JE, Bravo AJ, Conner BT, Pearson MR. A Burning Problem: Cannabis Lessons Learned from Colorado. ADDICTION RESEARCH & THEORY 2017; 26:3-10. [PMID: 38464667 PMCID: PMC10923185 DOI: 10.1080/16066359.2017.1315410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
With recent increases in cannabis' popularity, including being legalized in several states, new issues have emerged related to use. Increases in the number of users, new products, and home growing all present distinct concerns. In the present review, we explored various cannabis-related concerns (i.e. use, acquiring, growing, and public health/policy) that have arisen in Colorado in order to provide information on emerging issues and future directions to mitigate negative outcomes that could occur in states considering, or that already have implemented, a legalized cannabis market. Specific to Colorado, issues have arisen related to edibles, vaporizers/'e-cannabis', concentrates, growing, quantifying use, intoxicated driving, and arrests. Understanding cannabis dosing (including dose-dependent effects and related consequences), standardizing quantities, evaluating the safety of new products, and developing harm reduction interventions are important next steps for informing public policy and promoting health and well-being. Overall, increasing our knowledge of emerging issues related to cannabis is key to promoting the benefits and combating the potential harms of cannabis, especially for states legalizing medical or recreational cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie E. Parnes
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, 1876 Campus
Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Adrian J. Bravo
- Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, & Addictions, University
of New Mexico, 2650 Yale Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87106 USA
| | - Bradley T. Conner
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, 1876 Campus
Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Matthew R. Pearson
- Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, & Addictions, University
of New Mexico, 2650 Yale Blvd SE, Albuquerque, NM 87106 USA
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Rapid quantification of free and glucuronidated THCCOOH in urine using coated well plates and LC–MS/MS analysis. Bioanalysis 2017; 9:485-496. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Generally, urine drug testing for cannabis abuse involves measuring total concentrations of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) obtained by enzymatic and/or alkaline hydrolysis of THCCOOH-glucuronide. As hydrolysis can be inconsistent and incomplete, direct measurement of the two metabolites is preferable. Methodology & results: We developed a high-throughput LC–MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of free and glucuronidated THCCOOH in urine using coated 96-well plates for analyte extraction and column-switching chromatography. Excellent separation of the two analytes was achieved within 2.5 min, with linear ranges from 5 to 2000 μg/l for THCCOOH and from 10 to 4000 μg/l for THCCOOH-glucuronide. Conclusion: The method was successfully validated and applied to authentic urine samples from cannabis consumers, demonstrating its applicability for routine cannabinoid testing.
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Stephanson N, Sandqvist S, Lambert MS, Beck O. Method validation and application of a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for drugs of abuse testing in exhaled breath. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2015; 985:189-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Lee D, Huestis MA. Current knowledge on cannabinoids in oral fluid. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:88-111. [PMID: 23983217 PMCID: PMC4532432 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Oral fluid (OF) is a new biological matrix for clinical and forensic drug testing, offering non-invasive and directly observable sample collection reducing adulteration potential, ease of multiple sample collections, lower biohazard risk during collection, recent exposure identification, and stronger correlation with blood than urine concentrations. Because cannabinoids are usually the most prevalent analytes in illicit drug testing, application of OF drug testing requires sufficient scientific data to support sensitive and specific OF cannabinoid detection. This review presents current knowledge of OF cannabinoids, evaluating pharmacokinetic properties, detection windows, and correlation with other biological matrices and impairment from field applications and controlled drug administration studies. In addition, onsite screening technologies, confirmatory analytical methods, drug stability, and effects of sample collection procedure, adulterants, and passive environmental exposure are reviewed. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol OF concentrations could be >1000 µg/L shortly after smoking, whereas minor cannabinoids are detected at 10-fold and metabolites at 1000-fold lower concentrations. OF research over the past decade demonstrated that appropriate interpretation of test results requires a comprehensive understanding of distinct elimination profiles and detection windows for different cannabinoids, which are influenced by administration route, dose, and drug use history. Thus, each drug testing program should establish cut-off criteria, collection/analysis procedures, and storage conditions tailored to its purposes. Building a scientific basis for OF testing is ongoing, with continuing OF cannabinoids research on passive environmental exposure, drug use history, donor physiological conditions, and oral cavity metabolism needed to better understand mechanisms of cannabinoid OF disposition and expand OF drug testing applicability. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayong Lee
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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Himes SK, Scheidweiler KB, Beck O, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Huestis MA. Cannabinoids in exhaled breath following controlled administration of smoked cannabis. Clin Chem 2013; 59:1780-9. [PMID: 24046200 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2013.207407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), and cannabinol (CBN) were measured in breath following controlled cannabis smoking to characterize the time course and windows of detection of breath cannabinoids. METHODS Exhaled breath was collected from chronic (≥4 times per week) and occasional (<twice per week) smokers before and after smoking a 6.8% THC cigarette. Sample analysis included methanol extraction from breath pads, solid-phase extraction, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry quantification. RESULTS THC was the major cannabinoid in breath; no sample contained THCCOOH and only 1 contained CBN. Among chronic smokers (n = 13), all breath samples were positive for THC at 0.89 h, 76.9% at 1.38 h, and 53.8% at 2.38 h, and only 1 sample was positive at 4.2 h after smoking. Among occasional smokers (n = 11), 90.9% of breath samples were THC-positive at 0.95 h and 63.6% at 1.49 h. One occasional smoker had no detectable THC. Analyte recovery from breath pads by methanolic extraction was 84.2%-97.4%. Limits of quantification were 50 pg/pad for THC and CBN and 100 pg/pad for THCCOOH. Solid-phase extraction efficiency was 46.6%-52.1% (THC) and 76.3%-83.8% (THCCOOH, CBN). Matrix effects were -34.6% to 12.3%. Cannabinoids fortified onto breath pads were stable (≤18.2% concentration change) for 8 h at room temperature and -20°C storage for 6 months. CONCLUSIONS Breath may offer an alternative matrix for identifying recent driving under the influence of cannabis, but currently sensitivity is limited to a short detection window (0.5-2 h).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K Himes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
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Lee D, Vandrey R, Mendu DR, Anizan S, Milman G, Murray JA, Barnes AJ, Huestis MA. Oral fluid cannabinoids in chronic cannabis smokers during oral δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol therapy and smoked cannabis challenge. Clin Chem 2013; 59:1770-9. [PMID: 23938457 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2013.207316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is effective for attenuating cannabis withdrawal and may benefit treatment of cannabis use disorders. Oral fluid (OF) cannabinoid testing, increasing in forensic and workplace settings, could be valuable for monitoring during cannabis treatment. METHODS Eleven cannabis smokers resided on a closed research unit for 51 days and received daily 0, 30, 60, and 120 mg of oral THC in divided doses for 5 days. There was a 5-puff smoked cannabis challenge on the fifth day. Each medication session was separated by 9 days of ad libitum cannabis smoking. OF was collected the evening before and throughout oral THC sessions and analyzed by 2-dimensional GC-MS for THC, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH). RESULTS During all oral THC administrations, THC OF concentrations decreased to ≤ 78.2, 33.2, and 1.4 μg/L by 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. CBN also decreased over time, with concentrations 10-fold lower than THC, with none detected beyond 69 h. CBD and 11-OH-THC were rarely detected, only within 19 and 1.6 h after smoking, respectively. THCCOOH OF concentrations were dose dependent and increased over time during 120-mg THC dosing. After cannabis smoking, THC, CBN, and THCCOOH concentrations showed a significant dose effect and decreased significantly over time. CONCLUSIONS Oral THC dosing significantly affected OF THCCOOH but minimally contributed to THC OF concentrations; prior ad libitum smoking was the primary source of THC, CBD, and CBN. Higher cannabinoid concentrations following active oral THC administrations vs placebo suggest a compensatory effect of THC tolerance on smoking topography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayong Lee
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
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Armentano P. Cannabis and psychomotor performance: a rational review of the evidence and implications for public policy. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:52-6. [PMID: 22972702 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Armentano
- National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws-NORML, 1600 K Street, NW, Mezzanine Level, Washington, DC 20006-2832, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. A. Brettell
- Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Cedar Crest College, 100 College Drive, Allentown, Pennsylvania 18104-6196, United States
| | - J. M. Butler
- Biochemical Science Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-8312, United States
| | - J. R. Almirall
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, University Park, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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