A beginner's guide to chemokines

The Value of Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Chemokines and chemokine receptors (CCRs) are involved in a variety of anti-tumour and pro-tumour immune processes in vivo, such as angiogenesis, metastasis, proliferation and invasiveness, and influence patient prognosis and response to therapy.

Methods

CCRs differentially expressed in HCC and associated with prognosis were extracted from TCGA and GEO databases, and the obtained CCRs were then used to construct signature genes, and the signature gene were selected for expression validation as well as functional experiments to explore the role of CCRs in the treatment and prognosis of HCC.

Results

We constructed a prognostic model including five CCRs (CCL20, CCL23, CCR3, CCR10, and CXCR3) and validated the expression of signature genes. The model's risk score is an independent prognostic factor for HCC. We have also developed prognostic model nomograms for clinical use. In addition, we validated that CCR3 expression is associated with poor prognosis in HCC, and the proliferation and migration ability of HCC cells was significantly inhibited after interfering with the expression of CCR3 in MHCC-LM3. We also looked at differences in pathway enrichment, immune infiltration and immune checkpoints. Finally, we found that risk scores were also correlated with drug sensitivity, the high-risk group had a better sensitivity to sorafenib.

Conclusion

The CCRs-related gene signature may better assess HCC prognosis and response to immunotherapy and tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as sorafenib in HCC, providing prospective solutions for diagnosis and treatment.

CXCL9-11 chemokines and CXCR3 receptor in teleost fish species

The coordinated migration of immune cells from lymphoid organs to in or out of the bloodstream, and towards the site of infection or tissue damage is fundamental for an efficient innate and adaptive immune response. Interestingly, an essential part of this movement is mediated by chemoattractant cytokines called chemokines. Although the nature and function of chemokines and their receptors are well documented in mammals, much research is needed to accomplish a similar level of understanding of the role of chemokines in fish immunity. The first chemokine gene identified in teleosts (rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss) was CK1 in 1998. Since then, the identification of fish chemokine orthologue genes and characterization of their role has been more complex than expected, primarily because of the whole genome duplication processes occurring in fish, and because chemokines evolve faster than other immune genes. Some of the most studied chemokines are CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and the CXCR3 receptor, all involved in T cell migration and in the induction of the T helper 1 (Th1) immune response. Data from the zebrafish and rainbow trout CXCL9-11/CXCR3 axis suggest that these chemokines and the receptor arose early in evolution and must be present in most teleost fish. However, the pieces of knowledge also indicate that different numbers of gene copies can be present in different species, with distinct regulatory expression mechanisms and probably, also with different roles, as the differential expression in fish tissues suggest. Here, we revised the current knowledge of the CXCL9-11/CXCR3 axis in teleost fishes, identifying the gaps in knowledge, and raising some hypotheses for the role of CXCL9, CXCL10 CXCL11, and CXCR3 receptor axis in fish, which can encourage further studies in the field.

Chemokines in Primary Liver Cancer

The liver is responsible for extremely important functions in the human body. In the liver’s structure, we distinguish between connective tissue (stroma) and parenchyma, the latter of which is formed from the basic structural and functional units of the liver—hepatocytes. There are many factors, that negatively affect the liver cells, contributing to their damage. This may lead to fibrosis, liver failure and, in consequence, primary liver cancer, which is the sixth most commonly diagnosed malignancy and the fourth leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Chemokines are a large family of secreted proteins. Their main role is to direct the recruitment and migration of cells to sites of inflammation or injury. Some authors suggest that these proteins might play a potential role in the development of many malignancies, including primary liver cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate and summarize the knowledge regarding liver diseases, especially primary liver cancer (HCC) and the participation of chemokines in the development of this malignancy. Chemokines involved in the initiation of this type of tumor belong mainly to the CC and CXC chemokines. Their significant role in the course of hepatocellular carcinoma proves their usefulness in detecting and monitoring the course and treatment in patients with this disease.

CCR5 antagonist treatment inhibits vascular injury by regulating NADPH oxidase 1

BACKGROUND

Chemokine (C- Cmotif) ligand 5 (CCL5) and its receptor C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), have been broadly studied in conjunction with infectious pathogens, however, their involvement in cardiovascular disease is not completely understood. NADPH oxidases (Noxs) are the major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the vasculature. Whether the activation of Noxs is CCL5/CCR5 sensitive and whether such interaction initiates vascular injury is unknown. We investigated whether CCL5/CCR5 leads to vascular damage by activating Noxs.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We used rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMC) to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which CCL5 leads to vascular damage and carotid ligation (CL) to analyze the effects of blocking CCR5 on vascular injury.

RESULTS

CCL5 induced Nox1 expression in concentration and time-dependent manners, with no changes in Nox2 or Nox4. Maraviroc pre-treatment (CCR5 antagonist, 40uM) blunted CCL5-induced Nox1 expression. Furthermore, CCL5 incubation led to ROS production and activation of Erk1/2 and NFkB, followed by increased vascular cell migration, proliferation, and inflammatory markers. Notably, Nox1 inhibition (GKT771, 10uM) blocked CCL5-dependent effects. In vivo, CL induced pathological vascular remodeling and inflammatory genes and increased Nox1 and CCR5 expression. Maraviroc treatment (25 mg/Kg/day) reduced pathological vascular growth and Nox1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that CCL5 activates Nox1 in the vasculature, leading to vascular injury likely via NFkB and Erk1/2. Herein, we place CCR5 antagonists and/or Nox1 inhibitors might be preeminent antiproliferative compounds to reduce the cardiovascular risk associated with medical procedures (e.g. angioplasty) and vascular diseases associated with vascular hyperproliferation.

Bioinformatics analysis of sequential gene expression profiling after skin and skeletal muscle wound in mice

It is of great value to use bioinformatics methods to screen the core differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at different times after mouse skin and skeletal muscle wound, and to explore the relationship between them and the wound age. To this end, we downloaded the gene expression profiles of GSE140517 and GSE23006 from the NCBI-GEO gene database, used GEO2R online tools and Venn diagrams to screen out DEGs at different times and common-DEGs. The Gene Ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) channel analysis were carried out through the DAVID website respectively. Use STRING tool to build a Protein-protein Interaction (PPI) network, and use Cytoscape software to screen out core DEGs. The results showed that 13, 53, 43 and 13 core DEGs were screened out in the 6 h, 12 h, 24 h and common-DEGs group after wound. There were 7 core DEGs (Cxcl2, Cxcl3, Il1b, Ptgs2, Cxcl1, Timp1, Ccl3) in both the different time point and the common DEGs group. Meanwhile, there are 1 core DEGs (Ccl4) specifically expressed in the 6 h, 29 specifically expressed core DEGs (Isg20, Rtp4, Fcgr1, Ifi44, Trim30a, etc.) in the 12 h, and 18 specifically expressed core DEGs (Ccr7, Myd88, Igsf6, Ccr2, Gpsm3, etc.) in the 24 h, there are 6 core DEGs (Ccl4, Ccl7, Saa3, Cxcl5, Ccl2, Lcn2) specifically expressed in the common-DEGs group. The results of GO and KEGG analysis showed that the deterioration and exudation of the inflammatory response were the main cause at 6 h after wound. In addition to inflammation at 12 h and 24 h, the systemic immune response against viral and bacterial infections also gradually increased. In summary, the core DEGs selected in this study have combined characteristics, consistent with the healing function at the corresponding time point, and they are also has specificity and correlation with wound age. Therefore, by detecting the changes in the expression of co-expressed core DEGs at different times after wound, as well as detecting specific expressed DEGs at a specific time point or a specific period of time, it is very promising to provide help for the wound age estimation. However, limited by the GSE140517 gene expression profile in the database, only the difference in gene expression at different times within 24 h after wound was explored, and the research on the late wound age still needs to be further in-depth.

Regulation and functional roles of chemokines in liver diseases

Inflammation is a major contributor to the pathogenesis of almost all liver diseases. Low-molecular-weight proteins called chemokines are the main drivers of liver infiltration by immune cells such as macrophages, neutrophils and others during an inflammatory response. During the past 25 years, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the regulation and functions of chemokines in the liver. This Review summarizes three main aspects of the latest advances in the study of chemokine function in liver diseases. First, we provide an overview of chemokine biology, with a particular focus on the genetic and epigenetic regulation of chemokine transcription as well as on the cell type-specific production of chemokines by liver cells and liver-associated immune cells. Second, we highlight the functional roles of chemokines in liver homeostasis and their involvement in progression to disease in both human and animal models. Third, we discuss the therapeutic opportunities targeting chemokine production and signalling in the treatment of liver diseases, such as alcohol-associated liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, including the relevant preclinical studies and ongoing clinical trials.

Serum levels of CC chemokine ligands in cutaneous leishmaniasis patients

The crucial functions of chemokine/receptors in numerous parasitic infections, including leishmaniasis, are well documented. This study aimed to assess the serum levels of CC ligand (CCL) 2, CCL5, and CCL11 in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) patients. 64 patients, suffering from CL and 100 healthy people were selected, and their blood serum concentrations of CCL2, CCL5, and CCL11 were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results demonstrated that while the mean serum levels of CCL5 and CCL11 increased significantly in CL patients, the mean serum levels of CCL2 decreased, compared to the control group. Despite the sufficient production of CCL5 and CCL11 in CL patients, they suffered from CCL2 deficiency, as the defense mechanism against parasitic infection. These findings suggest a mechanism that might partially explain the patients' susceptibility to persistent infection and their inability to clear the parasites.

Review on Inflammation Markers in Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the major health problems of the modern age. It represents an important public health challenge with an ever-lasting rising prevalence, which reached almost 700 million by the year 2017. Therefore, it is very important to identify patients at risk for CKD development and discover risk factors that cause the progression of the disease. Several studies have tackled this conundrum in recent years, novel markers have been identified, and new insights into the pathogenesis of CKD have been gained. This review summarizes the evidence on markers of inflammation and their role in the development and progression of CKD. It will focus primarily on cytokines, chemokines, and cell adhesion molecules. Nevertheless, further large, multicenter studies are needed to establish the role of these markers and confirm possible treatment options in everyday clinical practice.

CCR7 as a therapeutic target in Cancer

The CCR7 chemokine axis is comprised of chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21) and chemokine ligand 19 (CCL19) acting on chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7). This axis plays two important but apparently opposing roles in cancer. On the one hand, this axis is significantly engaged in the trafficking of a number of effecter cells involved in mounting an immune response to a growing tumour. This suggests therapeutic strategies which involve potentiation of this axis can be used to combat the spread of cancer. On the other hand, the CCR7 axis plays a significant role in controlling the migration of tumour cells towards the lymphatic system and metastasis and can thus contribute to the expansion of cancer. This implies that therapeutic strategies which involve decreasing signaling through the CCR7 axis would have a beneficial effect in preventing dissemination of cancer. This dichotomy has partly been the reason why this axis has not yet been exploited, as other chemokine axes have, as a therapeutic target in cancer. Recent report of a crystal structure for CCR7 provides opportunities to exploit this axis in developing new cancer therapies. However, it remains unclear which of these two strategies, potentiation or antagonism of the CCR7 axis, is more appropriate for cancer therapy. This review brings together the evidence supporting both roles of the CCR7 axis in cancer and examines the future potential of each of the two different therapeutic approaches involving the CCR7 axis in cancer.

Eotaxins and Their Receptor in Colorectal Cancer-A Literature Review

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies in the world, with a global incidence of almost 2 million new cases every year. Despite the availability of many diagnostic tests, including laboratory tests and molecular diagnostics, an increasing number of new cases is observed. Thus, it is very important to search new markers that would show high diagnostic sensitivity and specificity in the detection of colorectal cancer in early stages of the disease. Eotaxins are proteins that belong to the cytokine group-small molecules with a variety of applications. Their main role is the activation of basophils and eosinophils involved in inflammatory processes. Therefore, we performed an extensive search of the literature pertaining to our investigation via the MEDLINE/PubMed database. On the basis of available literature, we can assume that eotaxins accumulate in cancer cells in the course of CRC. This leads to a decrease in the chemotaxis of eosinophils, which are effector immune cells with anti-tumor activity. This may explain a decrease in their number as a defense mechanism of cancer cells against their destruction and may be useful when attempting anti-tumor therapy with the use of chemokines.

The role of chemokines and chemokine receptors in multiple sclerosis

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Summarize the study of the role of chemokines and their receptors in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and MS animal models.

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Discuss their potential significance in inflammatory injury and repair of MS.

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Summarize the progress in the research of MS antagonists in recent years with chemokine receptors as targets.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that is characterized by leukocyte infiltration and subsequent axonal damage, demyelinating inflammation, and formation of sclerosing plaques in brain tissue. The results of various studies in patients indicate that autoimmunity and inflammation make an important impact on the pathogenesis of MS. Chemokines are key mediators of inflammation development and cell migration, mediating various immune cell responses, including chemotaxis and immune activation, and are important in immunity and inflammation, therefore we focus on chemokines and their receptors in multiple sclerosis. In this article, we summarize the study of the role of prominent chemokines and their receptors in MS patients and MS animal modelsand discuss their potential significance in inflammatory injury and repair of MS. We have also summarized the progress in the treatment of multiple sclerosis antagonists in recent years with chemokine receptors as targets.

The serum interleukin-26 level is a potential biomarker for chronical hepatitis B

Proinflammatory interleukin-26 (IL-26) is involved in chronic inflammation; however, the role of IL-26 in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) remains unknown.In this study, serum IL-26 was quantified in a cohort of CHB patients at baseline and during telbivudine (LdT) treatment.Our results showed that the serum IL-26 level was significantly elevated in CHB patients compared with that in healthy controls and was time-dependently decreased during LdT treatment, accompanying hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) seroconversion and reduced serum levels of hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA, aspartate transaminase, and alanine transaminase across baseline and treatment. In addition, the serum level of IL-26 exhibited a similar declining trend to that of T helper 17 (Th17) cell-secreted IL-17 during LdT treatment in CHB patients. The percentage of IL-26-expressing CD4 cells was significantly higher than that of IL-26-expressing CD4 cells isolated from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of CHB patients, suggesting that serum IL-26 might be mainly released from CD4 T cells. Furthermore, the baseline mRNA levels of IL-26 and orphan nuclear receptor RORγt-an important transcription factor expressed by Th17 cells-were positively correlated and displayed the same declining trend across the baseline and LdT treatment in CHB patients, suggesting that Th17 cells could be a possible cellular source of the increased serum IL-26 in CHB patients.Taken together, our results suggest that serum IL-26, possibly produced by Th17 CD4 cells, is a novel and potential biomarker for CHB prognosis and treatment.

Melatonin attenuates osteosarcoma cell invasion by suppression of C-C motif chemokine ligand 24 through inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway

Osteosarcoma, with its high metastatic potential, is the most prevalent malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents. Melatonin possesses multiple tumor-suppressing properties for a myriad of tumors, but little is known about the effects of melatonin on osteosarcoma metastasis. In this study, we demonstrated that melatonin elicited very low cytotoxicity and significantly inhibited cellular motility, migration, and invasion in human osteosarcoma U2OS and HOS cells. Moreover, using RNA sequencing technology, we revealed that melatonin repressed C-C motif chemokine ligand 24 (CCL24) gene expression in U2OS cells. Manipulation of CCL24 levels influenced the motility of osteosarcoma cells as cell migration and invasion were enhanced by the addition of recombinant human CCL24 and attenuated by the silencing of CCL24. Moreover, melatonin increased and decreased the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) 1/2, respectively, in a dose-dependent manner in U2OS and HOS cells while exerting no evident influence on the level and activation of p38, Akt, FAK, steroid receptor coactivator, or Raf. In further functional experiments, the use of JNK inhibitors (SP600125 and DN-JNK) confirmed that the pharmaceutic inhibition of JNK augmented the melatonin-mediated CCL24 suppression and migration of U2OS cells. Overall, our results revealed that melatonin attenuated chemokine CCL24 levels through inhibition of the JNK pathway to hinder human osteosarcoma cell invasion, thereby highlighting the therapeutic potential of melatonin for osteosarcoma metastasis.

A systematic investigation on the composition, evolution and expression characteristics of chemokine superfamily in grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella

Chemokines are a superfamily of small cytokines and characterized based on their ability to induce directional migration of cells along a concentration gradient by binding to chemokine receptors, which have important roles in immunology and development. Due to the numerous and diverse members, systematic identifications of chemokine superfamily genes are difficult in many species. To that end, a comprehensive analysis of BLAST and scripting language was conducted to systematically identify and characterize chemokine system in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Our results showed that C. idella chemokine superfamily consists of 81 chemokines and 37 receptors, in which, most genes possess typical structural features of the chemokine superfamily. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the existence of three chemokine subfamilies (CC, CXC and XC) in C. idella and revealed their homologous relationships with other species. Chemokine receptors are transmembrane receptors and contains CCR, CXCR, XCR and ACKR subfamilies. mRNA expression analyses of chemokine superfamily genes indicated that many members are sustainably expressed in multiple tissues before and after grass carp reovirus (GCRV) or Aeromonas hydrophila infection, which provides in vivo evidence for the response patterns after viral or bacterial infection. Meanwhile, this study also explored the evolution of chemokine system from arthropod to higher vertebrates and then investigated the changes in gene number/diversification, gene organization and encoded proteins during vertebrate evolution. These results will serve the further functional and evolutional studies on chemokine superfamily.

Correlation of serum cytokines, chemokines, growth factors and enzymes with periodontal disease parameters

Background

Periodontal disease (PD) is characterized by inflammatory tissue destruction in tooth supporting apparatus. Many studies indicate that the underlying pathogenesis is in concordance with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) sharing immune-inflammatory events affect both diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate serum cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, enzymes and costimulatory proteins in association with periodontal conditions in PD and RA subjects.

Materials & methods

Periodontal examination was performed in RA (n = 38), PD (n = 38) and healthy subjects (n = 14). Bleeding on probing (BOP) and probing pocket depth (PPD) were measured. Marginal bone loss (MBL) for premolars and molars was measured on digital panoramic radiographs. PD was defined as present if the PPD was ≥5mm in ≥ 3 different sites. Serum samples were collected from all subjects. A multiplex proximity extension assay (PEA) was used to analyze the samples for simultaneous measurement of 92 cytokines. Cytokines with ≥ 60% quantitative results were included.

Results

A significant positive correlation was seen for ST1A1, FGF-19 and NT-3 whereas EN-RAGE, DNER, CX3CL1 and TWEAK associated inversely with BOP, PPD≥ 5mm and MBL but positively with number of teeth. Several CD markers (CD244, CD40, CDCP1, LIF-R, IL-10RA, CD5 and CD6) were found to be associated with BOP, shallow and deep pockets, MBL and number of teeth, either directly or inversely. Most chemokines (CCL8, CX3CL1, CXCL10, CXCL11, CCL11, CCL4, CCL20, CXCL5, CXCL6, and CCL23) were positively associated with number of teeth and some inversely related to MBL (CCL8, CXCL10). Proteins with enzymatic activity (ST1A1, HGF and CASP-8) were directly related to the severity of periodontal conditions and inversely related to number of teeth. Aside from FGF-19, other growth factors were also directly associated with MBL (HGF), number of teeth (VEGF-A, LAP TGF-beta-1) and, inversely to, shallow pockets (LAP TGF-beta-1, TGFA and Beta-NGF). Out of 33 cytokines, 32 associated inversely with shallow pockets, whereas only CD40 associated positively. Associations between cytokines and periodontal parameters in the RA group were comparatively less. Statistical analyses were adjusted for multivariate effects using the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate method.

Conclusion

Systemic inflammatory burden, via known and novel markers, is associated with periodontal conditions in PD and RA subjects. Shallow pockets are not associated with a higher inflammatory state.

Agarose Spot as a Comparative Method for in situ Analysis of Simultaneous Chemotactic Responses to Multiple Chemokines

We describe a novel protocol to quantitatively and simultaneously compare the chemotactic responses of cells towards different chemokines. In this protocol, droplets of agarose gel containing different chemokines are applied onto the surface of a Petri dish, and then immersed under culture medium in which cells are suspended. As chemokine molecules diffuse away from the spot, a transient chemoattractant gradient is established across the spots. Cells expressing the corresponding cognate chemokine receptors migrate against this gradient by crawling under the agarose spots towards their centre. We show that this migration is chemokine-specific; meaning that only cells that express the cognate chemokine cell surface receptor, migrate under the spot containing its corresponding chemokine ligand. Furthermore, we show that migration under the agarose spot can be modulated by selective small molecule antagonists present in the cell culture medium.

A New Series of Orally Bioavailable Chemokine Receptor 9 (CCR9) Antagonists; Possible Agents for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Chemokine receptor 9 (CCR9), a cell surface chemokine receptor which belongs to the G protein-coupled receptor, 7-trans-membrane superfamily, is expressed on lymphocytes in the circulation and is the key chemokine receptor that enables these cells to target the intestine. It has been proposed that CCR9 antagonism represents a means to prevent the aberrant immune response of inflammatory bowel disease in a localized and disease specific manner and one which is accessible to small molecule approaches. One possible reason why clinical studies with vercirnon, a prototype CCR9 antagonist, were not successful may be due to a relatively poor pharmacokinetic (PK) profile for the molecule. We wish to describe work aimed at producing new, orally active CCR9 antagonists based on the 1,3-dioxoisoindoline skeleton. This study led to a number of compounds that were potent in the nanomolar range and which, on optimization, resulted in several possible preclinical development candidates with excellent PK properties.

Chemokine Involvement in Fetal and Adult Wound Healing

Significance: Fetal wounds heal with a regenerative phenotype that is indistinguishable from surrounding skin with restored skin integrity. Compared to this benchmark, all postnatal wound healing is impaired and characterized by scar formation. The biologic basis of the fetal regenerative phenotype can serve as a roadmap to recapitulating regenerative repair in adult wounds. Reduced leukocyte infiltration, likely mediated, in part, through changes in the chemokine milieu, is a fundamental feature of fetal wound healing. Recent Advances: The contributions of chemokines to wound healing are a topic of active investigation. Recent discoveries have opened the possibility of targeting chemokines therapeutically to treat disease processes and improve healing capability, including the possibility of achieving a scarless phenotype in postnatal wounds. Critical Issues: Successful wound healing is a complex process, in which there is a significant interplay between multiple cell types, signaling molecules, growth factors, and extracellular matrix. Chemokines play a crucial role in this interplay and have been shown to have different effects in various stages of the healing process. Understanding how these chemokines are locally produced and regulated during wound healing and how the chemokine milieu differs in fetal versus postnatal wounds may help us identify ways in which we can target chemokine pathways. Future Directions: Further studies on the role of chemokines and their role in the healing process will greatly advance the potential for using these molecules as therapeutic targets.

Chemokine CCL24 promotes the growth and invasiveness of trophoblasts through ERK1/2 and PI3K signaling pathways in human early pregnancy

Chemokine CCL24, acting through receptor CCR3, is a potent chemoattractant for eosinophil in allergic diseases and parasitic infections. We recently reported that CCL24 and CCR3 are co-expressed by trophoblasts in human early pregnant uterus. Here we prove with evidence that steroid hormones estradiol (E), progesterone (P), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), as well as decidual stromal cells (DSCs) could regulate the expression of CCL24 and CCR3 of trophoblasts. We further investigate how trophoblast-derived CCL24 mediates the function of trophoblasts in vitro, and conclude that CCL24/CCR3 promotes the proliferation, viability and invasiveness of trophoblasts. In addition, analysis of the downstream signaling pathways of CCL24/CCR3 show that extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways may contribute to the proliferation, viability and invasiveness of trophoblasts by activating intracellular molecules Ki67 and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9). However, we did not observe any inhibitory effect on trophoblasts when blocking c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) or p38 pathways. In conclusion, our data suggests that trophoblast-derived CCL24 at the maternal-fetal interface promotes trophoblasts cell growth and invasiveness by ERK1/2 and PI3K pathways. Meanwhile, pregnancy-related hormones (P and hCG), as well as DSCs could up-regulate CCL24/CCR3 expression in trophoblasts, which may indirectly influence the biological functions of trophoblasts. Thus, our results provide a possible explanation for the growth and invasion of trophoblasts in human embryo implantation.

Big opportunities for small molecules in immuno-oncology

The regulatory approval of ipilimumab (Yervoy) in 2011 ushered in a new era of cancer immunotherapies with durable clinical effects. Most of these breakthrough medicines are monoclonal antibodies that block protein-protein interactions between T cell checkpoint receptors and their cognate ligands. In addition, genetically engineered autologous T cell therapies have also recently demonstrated significant clinical responses in haematological cancers. Conspicuously missing from this class of therapies are traditional small-molecule drugs, which have previously served as the backbone of targeted cancer therapies. Modulating the immune system through a small-molecule approach offers several unique advantages that are complementary to, and potentially synergistic with, biologic modalities. This Review highlights immuno-oncology pathways and mechanisms that can be best or solely targeted by small-molecule medicines. Agents aimed at these mechanisms--modulation of the immune response, trafficking to the tumour microenvironment and cellular infiltration--are poised to significantly extend the scope of immuno-oncology applications and enhance the opportunities for combination with tumour-targeted agents and biologic immunotherapies.

Chemokines and cytokines as salivary biomarkers for the early diagnosis of oral cancer

Chemokines have been shown to be important in both inflammation and carcinogenesis and are able to be measured in saliva with relatively robust methods including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Thus it has been hypothesized that patients with oral cancer and oral potentially malignant lesions will have elevated levels of specific chemokines in oral fluids and that this may be used as a marker of both the early detection of malignant disease and progression to malignancy. The concept that salivary biomarkers can be easily measured and indicate disease states has profound consequences for clinical practice and may open up new strategies for the diagnosis, prognosis, and potential therapy of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). This review focuses on our understanding of cytokines and chemokines and the potential role that they may have in clinical practice.

Discovery and computer aided potency optimization of a novel class of small molecule CXCR4 antagonists

Amongst the chemokine signalling axes involved in cancer, chemokine CXCL12 acting on chemokine receptor CXCR4 is particularly significant since it orchestrates migration of cancer cells in a tissue-specific metastatic process. High CXCR4 tumour expression is associated with poor prognosis of lung, brain, CNS, blood and breast cancers. We have identified a new class of small molecule CXCR4 antagonists based on the use of computational modelling studies in concert with experimental determination of in vitro activity against CXCL12-induced intracellular calcium mobilisation, proliferation and chemotaxis. Molecular modelling proved to be a useful tool in rationalising our observed potencies, as well as informing the direction of the synthetic efforts aimed at producing more potent compounds.

Elevated levels of CXCL10 in the Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis and cervical Adenitis syndrome (PFAPA) during and between febrile episodes; an indication of a persistent activation of the innate immune system

BACKGROUND

The Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis and cervical Adenitis syndrome (PFAPA) is the most common periodic fever syndrome in childhood. Clinically, PFAPA may resemble autoinflammatory diseases, but the etiology is not fully understood.

METHODS

We measured inflammatory proteins in plasma and hematologic parameters in children with PFAPA during and between febrile episodes, and in a control group with suspected bacterial pneumonia. In children with PFAPA, a first blood sample was taken within 24 hours of a febrile episode and a second sample between episodes. In children with pneumonia, the first sample was taken shortly after admission and a second sample after full recovery.

RESULTS

A total of 22 children with PFAPA and 14 children with pneumonia were included. In children with PFAPA, levels of interleukin (IL) 6, CXCL10 and CCL4 were significantly increased during febrile episodes. The levels of IL-6 and CXCL10 were higher in children with PFAPA during febrile episodes than in children with pneumonia. The levels of CXCL10 remained higher in children with PFAPA between febrile episodes compared to children with pneumonia after recovery. Children with PFAPA had a relative eosinopenia and lymphocytopenia with reduced numbers of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells during febrile episodes. This pattern was not observed in the children with pneumonia.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate an innate immune response as the initial step in PFAPA, and a subsequent adaptive response with activation and redistribution of T cells. Moreover, an activation of the innate immune system involving CXCL10 may persist between febrile episodes. CXCL10 may be a possibly clinical marker in children with PFAPA.

Chemokines and Their Receptors Are Key Players in the Orchestra That Regulates Wound Healing

SIGNIFICANCE

Normal wound healing progresses through a series of overlapping phases, all of which are coordinated and regulated by a variety of molecules, including chemokines. Because these regulatory molecules play roles during the various stages of healing, alterations in their presence or function can lead to dysregulation of the wound-healing process, potentially leading to the development of chronic, nonhealing wounds.

RECENT ADVANCES

A discovery that chemokines participate in a variety of disease conditions has propelled the study of these proteins to a level that potentially could lead to new avenues to treat disease. Their small size, exposed termini, and the fact that their only modifications are two disulfide bonds make them excellent targets for manipulation. In addition, because they bind to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), they are highly amenable to pharmacological modulation.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Chemokines are multifunctional, and in many situations, their functions are highly dependent on the microenvironment. Moreover, each specific chemokine can bind to several GPCRs to stimulate the function, and both can function as monomers, homodimers, heterodimers, and even oligomers. Activation of one receptor by any single chemokine can lead to desensitization of other chemokine receptors, or even other GPCRs in the same cell, with implications for how these proteins or their receptors could be used to manipulate function.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Investment in better understanding of the functions of chemokines and their receptors in a local context can reveal new ways for therapeutic intervention. Understanding how different chemokines can activate the same receptor and vice versa could identify new possibilities for drug development based on their heterotypic interactions.

Expression pattern of serum cytokines in hepatitis B virus infected patients with persistently normal alanine aminotransferase levels

Purpose

About 60–80 % of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers are characterized with persistently normal alanine transaminase (ALT). Differences of cytokine expression are associated with the prognosis of HBV infection. We investigated the expression pattern of 30 cytokines associated with anti-HBV immunity in patients with normal ALT.

Methods

Four patient groups (immune tolerance, inactive hepatitis B surface antigen carriers, resolved hepatitis B, and control; 10 subjects per group) were assigned. Thirty cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, IL-15, IL-17A, IL-17C, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23p19, IL-28A, IL-29, CCL5, CCL16, CCL20, CCL22, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, TNFRSF8, TNFRSF18, IL-6R, gp130, and TGF-β1, were measured using a human cytokine antibody array. Signal intensities were obtained by laser scanner. Protein-protein interactions were analyzed by STRING (Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins).

Results

Significant differences of signal intensities were observed for IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, IL-15, IL-21, IL-23p19, IL-28A, and IL-29. The lowest intensity was in controls. Among three HBV infection groups, significant differences were observed in IL-2, IL-4, IL-12p70, IL-15, IL-21, IL-23p19, and IL-29. The highest intensity was in the inactive group. All cytokines with significant differences were involved JAK-STAT signaling that up-regulate FOXP3, SOCS3 and MX1.

Conclusion

Differential expression of cytokines in JAK-STAT signaling is an important factor associated with prognosis of HBV infection. The elevation of γC cytokines, IL-12p70, IL-23p19, and IL-29 may promote spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion and HBV clearance.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10875-013-9931-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

High CCR6/CCR7 expression and Foxp3+ Treg cell number are positively related to the progression of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

Chemokine receptors CCR6 and CCR7 have been reported to play important roles in T cell migration and organ-specific metastasis of various tumors. In the present study, we evaluated the expression and clinical significance of CCR6, CCR7, their ligands and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) and metastatic lymph nodes (LNs). The expression of CCR6, CCR7 and their ligands mRNA (CCL20, CCL19/CCL21) as well as the CCR6 and CCR7 proteins were detected by real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry (IHC), respectively. Flow cytometry was used to investigate the percentage of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Furthermore, a number of cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12p70, interferon (IFN)-γ and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 were detected by ELISA. The results showed that CCR6 and CCR7 were expressed in tumors in situ, metastatic LNs and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Tregs. It was hypothesized that the expression profile of CCR6, CCR7 and the proliferation of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Tregs affected the process of LN metastasis in LSCC patients. Therefore, the increased percentage of the Foxp3+ Tregs and the upregulation of Foxp3 expression on CCR6+ Tregs in LSCC patients may have accounted for the downregulation of antitumor immunity in these patients, which could be valuable for assessment of prognosis in LSCC treatment.

Chemokines in the pathogenesis of endometriosis and infertility

Endometriosis is a chronic benign disease that affects women of reproductive age causing abdominal pain and infertility. Its pathogenesis remains obscure despite all the research conducted over the past 100 years. However, there is a consensus among the specialists that the basis of its pathophysiology would be multifactorial. Many publications have demonstrated that chemokines are somehow associated with the development of endometriosis and infertility. In this study, we reviewed all PubMed literature using MeSH terms "chemokines" and "endometriosis" as well as "chemokines" and "female infertility" to establish what we know and what we do not yet know about this relationship.