Substrate-specific regulation of ubiquitination by the anaphase-promoting complex

Overcoming ABCB1 mediated multidrug resistance in castration resistant prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in American men. PCa that relapses after hormonal therapies, referred to as castration resistant PCa (CRPC), often presents with metastases (mCRPC) that are the major cause of mortality. The few available therapies for mCRPC patients include taxanes docetaxel (DTX) and cabazitaxel (CBZ). However, development of resistance limits their clinical use. Mechanistically, resistance arises through upregulation of multidrug resistance (MDR) proteins such as MDR1/ABCB1, making ABCB1 an attractive therapeutic target. Yet, ABCB1 inhibitors failed to be clinically useful due to low specificity and toxicity issues. To study taxanes resistance, we produced CBZ resistant C4-2B cells (RC4-2B) and documented resistance to both CBZ and DTX in cell culture and in 3D prostaspheres settings. RNAseq identified increased expression of ABCB1 in RC4-2B, that was confirmed by immunoblotting and immunofluorescent analysis. ABCB1-specific inhibitor elacridar reversed CBZ and DTX resistance in RC4-2B cells, confirming ABCB1-mediated resistance mechanism. In a cell-based screen using a curated library of cytotoxic drugs, we found that DNA damaging compounds Camptothecin (CPT) and Cytarabine (Ara-C) overcame resistance as seen by similar cytotoxicity in parental C4-2B and resistant RC4-2B. Further, these compounds were cytotoxic to multiple PC cells resistant to taxanes with high ABCB1 expression and, therefore, can be used to conquer the acquired resistance to taxanes in PCa. Finally, inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases 4/6 (CDK4/6) with small molecule inhibitors (CDK4/6i) potentiated cytotoxic effect of CPT or Ara-C in both parental and resistant cells. Overall, our findings indicate that DNA damaging agents CPT and Ara-C alone or in combination with CDK4/6i can be suggested as a new treatment regimen in CRPC patients, including those that are resistant to taxanes.

Inhibition of Mps1 kinase enhances taxanes efficacy in castration resistant prostate cancer

Androgen ablation therapy is the standard of care for newly diagnosed prostate cancer (PC) patients. PC that relapsed after hormonal therapy, referred to as castration-resistant PC (CRPC), often presents with metastasis (mCRPC) and is the major cause of disease lethality. The few available therapies for mCRPC include the Taxanes Docetaxel (DTX) and Cabazitaxel (CBZ). Alas, clinical success of Taxanes in mCRPC is limited by high intrinsic and acquired resistance. Therefore, it remains essential to develop rationally designed treatments for managing therapy-resistant mCRPC disease. The major effect of Taxanes on microtubule hyper-polymerization is a prolonged mitotic block due to activation of the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint (SAC). Taxane-sensitive cells eventually inactivate SAC and exit mitosis by mitotic catastrophe, resulting in genome instability and blockade of proliferation. Resistant cells remain in mitotic block, and, upon drug decay, resume mitosis and proliferation, underlying one resistance mechanism. In our study we explored the possibility of forced mitotic exit to elevate Taxane efficacy. Inactivation of the SAC component, mitotic checkpoint kinase Mps1/TTK with a small molecule inhibitor (Msp1i), potentiated efficacy of Taxanes treatment in both 2D cell culture and 3D prostasphere settings. Mechanistically, Mps1 inhibition forced mitotic catastrophe in cells blocked in mitosis by Taxanes. Androgen receptor (AR), the main driver of PC, is often mutated or truncated in mCRPC. Remarkably, Mps1i significantly potentiated CBZ cytotoxicity regardless of AR status, in both AR-WT and in AR-truncated CRPC cells. Overall, our data demonstrate that forced mitotic exit by Mps1 inhibition potentiates Taxanes efficacy. Given that several Mps1i's are currently in different stages of clinical trials, our results point to Mps1 as a new therapeutic target to potentiate efficacy of Taxanes in mCRPC patients.

Polyploidy formation in cancer cells: How a Trojan horse is born

Ploidy increase has been shown to occur in different type of tumors and participate in tumor initiation and resistance to the treatment. Polyploid giant cancer cells (PGCCs) are cells with multiple nuclei or a single giant nucleus containing multiple complete sets of chromosomes. The mechanism leading to formation of PGCCs may depend on: endoreplication, mitotic slippage, cytokinesis failure, cell fusion or cell cannibalism. Polyploidy formation might be triggered in response to various genotoxic stresses including: chemotherapeutics, radiation, hypoxia, oxidative stress or environmental factors like: air pollution, UV light or hyperthermia. A fundamental feature of polyploid cancer cells is the generation of progeny during the reversal of the polyploid state (depolyploidization) that may show high aggressiveness resulting in the formation of resistant disease and tumor recurrence. Therefore, we propose that modern anti-cancer therapies should be designed taking under consideration polyploidization/ depolyploidization processes, which confer the polyploidization a hidden potential similar to a Trojan horse delayed aggressiveness. Various mechanisms and stress factors leading to polyploidy formation in cancer cells are discussed in this review.

Cyclin A2 degradation during the spindle assembly checkpoint requires multiple binding modes to the APC/C

The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) orchestrates cell cycle progression by controlling the temporal degradation of specific cell cycle regulators. Although cyclin A2 and cyclin B1 are both targeted for degradation by the APC/C, during the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) represses APC/C's activity towards cyclin B1, but not cyclin A2. Through structural, biochemical and in vivo analysis, we identify a non-canonical D box (D2) that is critical for cyclin A2 ubiquitination in vitro and degradation in vivo. During the SAC, cyclin A2 is ubiquitinated by the repressed APC/C-MCC, mediated by the cooperative engagement of its KEN and D2 boxes, ABBA motif, and the cofactor Cks. Once the SAC is satisfied, cyclin A2 binds APC/C-Cdc20 through two mutually exclusive binding modes, resulting in differential ubiquitination efficiency. Our findings reveal that a single substrate can engage an E3 ligase through multiple binding modes, affecting its degradation timing and efficiency.

PTPN14 regulates Roquin2 stability by tyrosine dephosphorylation

Protein phosphorylation regulates a variety of cellular signaling pathways and fundamental mechanisms in cells. In this paper, we demonstrate that the mRNA decay factor Roquin2 is phosphorylated at tyrosine residue in position 691 in vivo. This phosphorylation disrupts the interaction with KLHL6, the E3 ligase for Roquin2. Furthermore, we establish that the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN14 specifically interacts with Roquin2 through its phosphatase domain and dephosphorylates Roquin2 tyrosine 691. Overexpression of PTPN14 promotes Roquin2 degradation in a KLHL6-dependant manner by promoting interaction with KLHL6. Collectively, our findings reveal that PTPN14 negatively regulates the protein stability of Roquin2, thereby adding a new layer of regulation to the KLHL6-Roquin2 axis.

Decoys Untangle Complicated Redundancy and Reveal Targets of Circadian Clock F-Box Proteins

Eukaryotic circadian clocks utilize the ubiquitin proteasome system to precisely degrade clock proteins. In plants, the F-box-type E3 ubiquitin ligases ZEITLUPE (ZTL), FLAVIN-BINDING, KELCH REPEAT, F-BOX1 (FKF1), and LOV KELCH PROTEIN2 (LKP2) regulate clock period and couple the clock to photoperiodic flowering in response to end-of-day light conditions. To better understand their functions, we expressed decoy ZTL, FKF1, and LKP2 proteins that associate with target proteins but are unable to ubiquitylate their targets in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). These dominant-negative forms of the proteins inhibit the ubiquitylation of target proteins and allow for the study of ubiquitylation-independent and -dependent functions of ZTL, FKF1, and LKP2. We demonstrate the effects of expressing ZTL, FKF1, and LKP2 decoys on the circadian clock and flowering time. Furthermore, the decoy E3 ligases trap substrate interactions, and using immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry, we identify interacting partners. We focus studies on the clock transcription factor CCA1 HIKING EXPEDITION (CHE) and show that ZTL interacts directly with CHE and can mediate CHE ubiquitylation. We also demonstrate that CHE protein is degraded in the dark and that degradation is reduced in a ztl mutant plant, showing that CHE is a bona fide ZTL target protein. This work increases our understanding of the genetic and biochemical roles for ZTL, FKF1, and LKP2 and also demonstrates an effective methodology for studying complicated genetic redundancy among E3 ubiquitin ligases.

Endoreplication: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

To battle adverse internal and external conditions and maintain homeostasis, diploid organisms employ various cellular processes, such as proliferation and apoptosis. In some tissues, an alternative mechanism, endoreplication, is employed toward similar goals. Endoreplication is an evolutionarily conserved cell cycle program during which cells replicate their genomes without division, resulting in polyploid cells. Importantly, endoreplication is reported to be indispensable for normal development and organ formation across various organisms, from fungi to humans. In recent years, more attention has been drawn to delineating its connections to wound healing and tumorigenesis. In this Review, we discuss mechanisms of endoreplication and polyploidization, their essential and positive roles in normal development and tissue homeostasis, and the relationship between polyploidy and cancer.

APC/CFZR-1 Controls SAS-5 Levels To Regulate Centrosome Duplication in Caenorhabditis elegans

As the primary microtubule-organizing center, centrosomes play a key role in establishing mitotic bipolar spindles that secure correct transmission of genomic content. For the fidelity of cell division, centrosome number must be strictly controlled by duplicating only once per cell cycle. Proper levels of centrosome proteins are shown to be critical for normal centrosome number and function. Overexpressing core centrosome factors leads to extra centrosomes, while depleting these factors results in centrosome duplication failure. In this regard, protein turnover by the ubiquitin-proteasome system provides a vital mechanism for the regulation of centrosome protein levels. Here, we report that FZR-1, the Caenorhabditis elegans homolog of Cdh1/Hct1/Fzr, a coactivator of the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, functions as a negative regulator of centrosome duplication in the C. elegans embryo. During mitotic cell division in the early embryo, FZR-1 is associated with centrosomes and enriched at nuclei. Loss of fzr-1 function restores centrosome duplication and embryonic viability to the hypomorphic zyg-1(it25) mutant, in part, through elevated levels of SAS-5 at centrosomes. Our data suggest that the APC/C^FZR-1 regulates SAS-5 levels by directly recognizing the conserved KEN-box motif, contributing to proper centrosome duplication. Together, our work shows that FZR-1 plays a conserved role in regulating centrosome duplication in C. elegans.

UBE2S associated with OSCC proliferation by promotion of P21 degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome system

Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2S (UBE2S), a family of E2 protein in the ubiquitin-proteasome system, is highly expressed in several types of cancers; however, its roles in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) have not yet been well elucidated. The purpose of this study was to clarify the functional activities of UBE2S in OSCCs. We analyzed the expression levels of UBE2S in nine OSCC cell lines and primary OSCC tissues by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry (IHC). The correlations between UBE2S expression and clinical classifications of OSCCs were analyzed using the IHC scoring system. We also used UBE2S knockdown OSCC cells for functional assays (proliferation assay, flow cytometry, and Western blotting). UBE2S was overexpressed in OSCCs in vitro and in vivo and was correlated significantly (P < 0.05) with the primary tumoral size. The cellular growth was decreased and the cell-cycle was arrested in the G2/M phase in the UBE2S knockdown (shUBE2S) cells. The expression level of P21, a target of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, was increased in the shUBE2S cells because of lower anaphase activity that promotes complex subunit 3 (APC3), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, compared with shMock cells. These findings might promote the understanding of the relationship between UBE2S overexpression and oral cancer proliferation, indicating that UBE2S would be a potential biomarker of and therapeutic target in OSCCs.

Detection and Analysis of Cell Cycle-Associated APC/C-Mediated Cellular Ubiquitylation In Vitro and In Vivo

The anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C) is one of the major orchestrators of the cell division cycle in mammalian cells. The APC/C acts as a ubiquitin ligase that triggers sequential ubiquitylation of a significant number of substrates which will be eventually degraded by proteasomes during major transitions of the cell cycle. In this chapter, we present accessible methodologies to assess both in in vitro conditions and in cellular systems ubiquitylation reactions mediated by the APC/C. In addition, we also describe techniques to evidence the changes in protein stability provoked by modulation of the activity of the APC/C. Finally, specific methods to analyze interactors or posttranslational modifications of particular APC/C subunits are also discussed. Given the crucial role played by the APC/C in the regulation of the cell cycle, this review only focuses on its action and effects in actively proliferating cells.

Casein kinase 1δ is an APC/C(Cdh1) substrate that regulates cerebellar granule cell neurogenesis

Although casein kinase 1δ (CK1δ) is at the center of multiple signaling pathways, its role in the expansion of CNS progenitor cells is unknown. Using mouse cerebellar granule cell progenitors (GCPs) as a model for brain neurogenesis, we demonstrate that the loss of CK1δ or treatment of GCPs with a highly selective small molecule inhibits GCP expansion. In contrast, CK1δ overexpression increases GCP proliferation. Thus, CK1δ appears to regulate GCP neurogenesis. CK1δ is targeted for proteolysis via the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C(Cdh1)) ubiquitin ligase, and conditional deletion of the APC/C(Cdh1) activator Cdh1 in cerebellar GCPs results in higher levels of CK1δ. APC/C(Cdh1) also downregulates CK1δ during cell-cycle exit. Therefore, we conclude that APC/C(Cdh1) controls CK1δ levels to balance proliferation and cell-cycle exit in the developing CNS. Similar studies in medulloblastoma cells showed that CK1δ holds promise as a therapeutic target.

Mitotic exit and separation of mother and daughter cells

Productive cell proliferation involves efficient and accurate splitting of the dividing cell into two separate entities. This orderly process reflects coordination of diverse cytological events by regulatory systems that drive the cell from mitosis into G1. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, separation of mother and daughter cells involves coordinated actomyosin ring contraction and septum synthesis, followed by septum destruction. These events occur in precise and rapid sequence once chromosomes are segregated and are linked with spindle organization and mitotic progress by intricate cell cycle control machinery. Additionally, critical paarts of the mother/daughter separation process are asymmetric, reflecting a form of fate specification that occurs in every cell division. This chapter describes central events of budding yeast cell separation, as well as the control pathways that integrate them and link them with the cell cycle.

Non-canonical ubiquitylation: mechanisms and consequences

Post-translational protein modifications initiate, regulate, propagate and terminate a wide variety of processes in cells, and in particular, ubiquitylation targets substrate proteins for degradation, subcellular translocation, cell signaling and multiple other cellular events. Modification of substrate proteins is widely observed to occur via covalent linkages of ubiquitin to the amine groups of lysine side-chains. However, in recent years several new modes of ubiquitin chain attachment have emerged. For instance, covalent modification of non-lysine sites in substrate proteins is theoretically possible according to basic chemical principles underlying the ubiquitylation process, and evidence is building that sites such as the N-terminal amine group of a protein, the hydroxyl group of serine and threonine residues and even the thiol groups of cysteine residues are all employed as sites of ubiquitylation. However, the potential importance of this "non-canonical ubiquitylation" of substrate proteins on sites other than lysine residues has been largely overlooked. This review aims to highlight the unusual features of the process of non-canonical ubiquitylation and the consequences of these events on the activity and fate of a protein.

Emi1 preferentially inhibits ubiquitin chain elongation by the anaphase-promoting complex

The anaphase promoting complex (APC) is the crucial ubiquitin ligase targeting the regulatory machinery of the cell cycle. Emi1, a major modulator of APC activity, is thought to act competitively as a pseudosubstrate. We show that the modulation of APC activity is more subtle: Emi1 inhibits ubiquitylation at both substrate binding and separately at the step of ubiquitin transfer to APC-bound substrates. The zinc-binding region of Emi1 allows multiple monoubiquitylation of substrates, but preferentially suppresses the ubiquitin chain elongation by UBCH10. Furthermore, the C-terminal tail of Emi1 antagonizes chain elongation by Ube2S, via competitively preventing its binding to APC cullin subunit through electrostatic interaction. Combinatorially, Emi1 effectively stabilizes APC substrates by suppressing ubiquitin chain extension. Deubiquitylating enzymes can then convert inhibited substrates to their basal state. Chain elongation may be a particularly sensitive step for controlling degradation and this study provides the first kinetic evidence for how it is inhibited.

Flipping the switch from g1 to s phase with e3 ubiquitin ligases

The cell cycle ensures genome maintenance by coordinating the processes of DNA replication and chromosome segregation. Of particular importance is the irreversible transition from the G1 phase of the cell cycle to S phase. This transition marks the switch from preparing chromosomes for replication ("origin licensing") to active DNA synthesis ("origin firing"). Ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis is essential for restricting DNA replication to only once per cell cycle and is the major mechanism regulating the G1 to S phase transition. Although some changes in protein levels are attributable to regulated mRNA abundance, protein degradation elicits very rapid changes in protein abundance and is critical for the sharp and irreversible transition from one cell cycle stage to the next. Not surprisingly, regulation of the G1-to-S phase transition is perturbed in most cancer cells, and deregulation of key molecular events in G1 and S phase drives not only cell proliferation but also genome instability. In this review we focus on the mechanisms by which E3 ubiquitin ligases control the irreversible transition from G1 to S phase in mammalian cells.

Endoreplication and polyploidy: insights into development and disease

Polyploid cells have genomes that contain multiples of the typical diploid chromosome number and are found in many different organisms. Studies in a variety of animal and plant developmental systems have revealed evolutionarily conserved mechanisms that control the generation of polyploidy and have recently begun to provide clues to its physiological function. These studies demonstrate that cellular polyploidy plays important roles during normal development and also contributes to human disease, particularly cancer.

The histone acetyltransferase component TRRAP is targeted for destruction during the cell cycle

Chromosomes are dynamic structures that must be reversibly condensed and unfolded to accommodate mitotic division and chromosome segregation. Histone modifications are involved in the striking chromatin reconfiguration taking place during mitosis. However, the mechanisms that regulate activity and function of histone-modifying factors as cells enter and exit mitosis are poorly understood. Here, we show that the anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C) is involved in the mitotic turnover of TRRAP (TRansformation/tRanscription domain-Associated Protein), a common component of histone acetyltransferase (HAT) complexes, and that the pre-mitotic degradation of TRRAP is mediated by the APC/C ubiquitin ligase activators Cdc20 and Cdh1. Ectopic expression of both Cdh1 and Cdc20 reduced the levels of coexpressed TRRAP protein and induced its ubiquitination. TRRAP overexpression or stabilization induces multiple mitotic defects, including lagging chromosomes, chromosome bridges and multipolar spindles. In addition, lack of sister chromatid cohesion and impaired chromosome condensation were found after TRRAP overexpression or stabilization. By using a truncated form of TRRAP, we show that mitotic delay is associated with a global histone H4 hyperacetylation induced by TRRAP overexpression. These results demonstrate that the chromatin modifier TRRAP is targeted for destruction in a cell cycle-dependent fashion. They also suggest that degradation of TRRAP by the APC/C is necessary for a proper condensation of chromatin and proper chromosome segregation. Chromatin compaction mediated by histone modifiers may represent a fundamental arm for APC/C orchestration of the mitotic machinery.

SCFFbxw5 mediates transient degradation of actin remodeller Eps8 to allow proper mitotic progression

Eps8, a bi-functional actin cytoskeleton remodeller, is a positive regulator of cell proliferation and motility. Here, we describe an unrecognized mechanism regulating Eps8 that is required for proper mitotic progression: whereas Eps8 is stable in G1 and S phase, its half-life drops sharply in G2. This requires G2-specific proteasomal degradation mediated by the ubiquitin E3 ligase SCF(Fbxw5). Consistent with a short window of degradation, Eps8 disappears from the cell cortex early in mitosis, but reappears at the midzone of dividing cells. Failure to reduce Eps8 levels in G2 prolongs its localization at the cell cortex and markedly delays cell rounding and prometaphase duration. However, during late stages of mitosis and cytokinesis, Eps8 capping activity is required to prevent membrane blebbing and cell-shape deformations. Our findings identify SCF(Fbxw5)-driven fluctuation of Eps8 levels as an important mechanism that contributes to cell-shape changes during entry into-and exit from-mitosis.

Ubiquitin- and ubiquitin-like proteins-conjugating enzymes (E2s) in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Sub-types of breast cancer defined by the expression of steroid hormones and Her2/Neu oncogene have distinct prognosis and undergo different therapies. Besides differing in their phenotype, sub-types of breast cancer display various molecular lesions that participate in their pathogenesis. BRCA1 is one of the common hereditary cancer predisposition genes and encodes for an ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitin ligases or E3 enzymes participate together with ubiquitin activating enzyme and ubiquitin conjugating enzymes in the attachment of ubiquitin (ubiquitination) in target proteins. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification regulating multiple cell functions. It also plays important roles in carcinogenesis in general and in breast carcinogenesis in particular. Ubiquitin conjugating enzymes are a central component of the ubiquitination machinery and are often perturbed in breast cancer. This paper will discuss ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins conjugating enzymes participating in breast cancer pathogenesis, their relationships with other proteins of the ubiquitination machinery and their role in phenotype of breast cancer sub-types.

Regulation of APC/C-Cdh1 and its function in neuronal survival

Neurons are post-mitotic cells that undergo an active downregulation of cell cycle-related proteins to survive. The activity of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), an E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates cell cycle progression in proliferating cells, plays a relevant role in post-mitotic neurons. Recent advances in the study of the regulation of APC/C have documented that the APC/C-activating cofactor, Cdh1, is essential for the function(s) of APC/C in neuronal survival. Here, we review the normal regulation of APC/C activity in proliferating cells and neurons. We conclude that in neurons the APC/C-Cdh1 complex actively downregulates the stability of the cell cycle protein cyclin B1 and the glycolytic enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase-3. Keeping these proteins destabilized is critical both for preventing the aberrant reentry of post-mitotic neurons into the cell cycle and for maintaining their reduced antioxidant status. Further understanding of the pathophysiological regulation of these proteins by APC/C-Cdh1 in neurons will be important for the search for novel therapeutic targets against neurodegeneration.

Substrate targeting by the ubiquitin-proteasome system in mitosis

Both cell cycle progression and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) that drives it are precisely regulated. Enzymatically, many ubiquitylation and degradation reactions have been characterized in in vitro systems, providing insights into the fundamental mechanisms of the UPS. Biologically, a range of degradation events depending on a ubiquitin ligase called the Anaphase-Promoting Complex (APC/C), have been shown to control mitotic progression through removal of key substrates with extreme temporal precision. However we are only just beginning to understand how the different enzymatic activities of the UPS act collectively - and in cooperation with other cellular factors - for accurate temporal and spatial control of mitotic substrate levels in vivo.

Control of MCAK degradation and removal from centromeres

Mitotic centromere associated kinesin (MCAK) is a kinesin related protein with the ability to stimulate microtubule depolymerization. It is found at spindle poles, where it may be involved in poleward microtubule flux, and at kinetochores and centromeres where it plays a role in correcting chromosome alignment errors. Its microtubule depolymerase activity and recruitment to centromeres is regulated by phosphorylation, but little is known about how MCAK is maintained at appropriate levels. We previously reported that MCAK accumulates during the cell cycle and is then degraded during mitosis. Using proteomic analysis, we have now identified a new phosphorylation site on MCAK that is responsible for its degradation. Mutation of the site to prevent phosphorylation prolonged the stability of the protein beyond the metaphase to anaphase transition and into the subsequent cell cycle whereas a phosphomimetic mutation accelerated degradation. Unexpectedly, the mutation that prevented phosphorylation also inhibited the removal of MCAK from centromeres causing it to remain attached throughout the cell cycle. Even low expression of phosphorylation-resistant MCAK delayed mitosis and interfered with cell division. Mitotic defects were also observed by overexpressing a green fluorescent protein-tagged version of wild-type MCAK that similarly escaped degradation and accumulated to toxic levels, but did not remain associated with kinetochores during interphase. The results demonstrate that degradation is an important mechanism for controlling the activity of MCAK.

Role of the ubiquitin-proteasome in protein quality control and signaling: implication in the pathogenesis of eye diseases

The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP) plays important roles in many cellular functions, such as protein quality control, cell cycle control, and signal transduction. The selective degradation of aberrant proteins by the UPP is essential for the timely removal of potential cytotoxic damaged or otherwise abnormal proteins. Conversely, accumulation of the cytotoxic abnormal proteins in eye tissues is etiologically associated with many age-related eye diseases such as retina degeneration, cataract, and certain types of glaucoma. Age- or stress-induced impairment or overburdening of the UPP appears to contribute to the accumulation of abnormal proteins in eye tissues. Cell cycle and signal transduction are regulated by the conditional UPP-dependent degradation of the regulators of these processes. Impairment or overburdening of the UPP could also result in dysregulation of cell cycle control and signal transduction. The consequences of the improper cell cycle and signal transduction include defects in ocular development, wound healing, angiogenesis, or inflammatory responses. Methods that enhance or preserve UPP function or reduce its burden may be useful strategies for preventing age-related eye diseases.

Processive ubiquitin chain formation by the anaphase-promoting complex

Progression through mitosis requires the sequential ubiquitination of cell cycle regulators by the anaphase-promoting complex, resulting in their proteasomal degradation. Although several mechanisms contribute to APC/C regulation during mitosis, the APC/C is able to discriminate between its many substrates by exploiting differences in the processivity of ubiquitin chain assembly. Here, we discuss how the APC/C achieves processive ubiquitin chain formation to trigger the sequential degradation of cell cycle regulators during mitosis.