Molecular mechanisms of mesenchymal stem cell differentiation towards osteoblasts

The role of circulating miRNAs in the diagnosis of osteoporosis miRNAs in osteoporosis

OBJECTIVE

Osteoporosis, defined as a systemic skeletal disease, is characterized by increased bone fragility and fracture risk. Studies have shown that dysregulation of the functions of miRNAs or the mechanisms they mediate may be an important pathological factor in bone degeneration. Therefore, the aim of the study was to determine the role of miRNAs, which are thought to play a role in bone metabolism, in osteoporosis.

METHODS

The study included 48 patients who were diagnosed with osteoporosis according to the results of a bone mineral density assessment by quantitative computed tomography and 36 healthy individuals. MiRNAs from plasma samples obtained from blood samples taken into ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) tubes were isolated with the miRNA isolation kit and converted to cDNA. Expression analysis of miR-21-5p, miR-34a-5p, miR-210, miR-122-5p, miR-125b-5p, miR-133a, miR-143-3p, miR-146a, miR-155-5p, and miR-223 was performed on the real-time PCR (RT-PCR) device.

RESULTS

When miRNA expression levels in the patient group were compared with the control group, all miRNAs were found to be downregulated in the patients. When fold changes in expression levels in the patient group were examined, significant differences were found in miR-21-5p, miR-133a, mir143-3p, miR-210, and miR-223. In the receiver operating curve analysis, area under the curve=0.882 for the combination of miR-34, miR-125, miR-133, and miR-210.

CONCLUSION

In this study, it was determined that the combined effects of miRNAs, as well as their single effects, were effective in the development of osteoporosis. Therefore, a miRNA panel to be created can make a significant contribution to the development of novel diagnostic and treatment approaches for this disease.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes and Their MicroRNAs in Heart Repair and Regeneration

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be differentiated into cardiac, endothelial, and smooth muscle cells. Therefore, MSC-based therapeutic approaches have the potential to deal with the aftermaths of cardiac diseases. However, transplanted stem cells rarely survive in damaged myocardium, proposing that paracrine factors other than trans-differentiation may involve in heart regeneration. Apart from cytokines/growth factors, MSCs secret small, single-membrane organelles named exosomes. The MSC-secreted exosomes are enriched in lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and microRNA (miRNA). There has been an increasing amount of data that confirmed that MSC-derived exosomes and their active molecule microRNA (miRNAs) regulate signaling pathways involved in heart repair/regeneration. In this review, we systematically present an overview of MSCs, their cardiac differentiation, and the role of MSC-derived exosomes and exosomal miRNAs in heart regeneration. In addition, biological functions regulated by MSC-derived exosomes and exosomal-derived miRNAs in the process of heart regeneration are reviewed.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide exerts an osteoinductive effect in human mesenchymal stem cells

Several neuropeptides present in bone tissues, produced by nerve fibers and bone cells, have been reported to play a role in regulating the fine-tuning of osteoblast and osteoclast functions to maintain bone homeostasis. This study aims to characterize the influence of the neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on the differentiation process of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into osteoblasts and on their anabolic function. We describe the mRNA and protein expression profile of VIP and its receptors in MSCs as they differentiate into osteoblasts, suggesting the presence of an autocrine signaling pathway in these cells. Our findings reveal that VIP enhances the expression of early osteoblast markers in MSCs under osteogenic differentiation and favors both bone matrix formation and proper cytoskeletal reorganization. Finally, our data suggest that VIP could be exerting a direct modulatory role on the osteoblast to osteoclast signaling by downregulating the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand/osteoprotegerin ratio. These results highlight the potential of VIP as an osteoinductive differentiation factor, emerging as a key molecule in the maintenance of human bone homeostasis.

Enhancing osteoblast proliferation and bone regeneration by poly (amino acid)/selenium-doped hydroxyapatite

Among various biomaterials employed for bone repair, composites with good biocompatibility and osteogenic ability had received increasing attention from biomedical applications. In this study, we doped selenium (Se) into hydroxyapatite (Se-HA) by the precipitation method, and prepared different amounts of Se-HA-loaded poly (amino acid)/Se-HA (PAA/Se-HA) composites (0, 10 wt%, 20 wt%, 30 wt%) byin-situmelting polycondensation. The physical and chemical properties of PAA/Se-HA composites were characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and their mechanical properties. XRD and FT-IR results showed that PAA/Se-HA composites contained characteristic peaks of PAA and Se-HA with amide linkage and HA structures. DSC and TGA results specified the PAA/Se-HA30 composite crystallization, melting, and maximum weight loss temperatures at 203.33 °C, 162.54 °C, and 468.92 °C, respectively, which implied good thermal stability. SEM results showed that Se-HA was uniformly dispersed in PAA. The mechanical properties of PAA/Se-HA30 composites included bending, compressive, and yield strengths at 83.07 ± 0.57, 106.56 ± 0.46, and 99.17 ± 1.11 MPa, respectively. The cellular responses of PAA/Se-HA compositesin vitrowere studied using bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) by cell counting kit-8 assay, and results showed that PAA/Se-HA30 composites significantly promoted the proliferation of BMSCs at the concentration of 2 mg ml-1. The alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP) and alizarin red staining results showed that the introduction of Se-HA into PAA enhanced ALP activity and formation of calcium nodule. Western blotting and Real-time polymerase chain reaction results showed that the introduction of Se-HA into PAA could promoted the expression of osteogenic-related proteins and mRNA (integrin-binding sialoprotein, osteopontin, runt-related transcription factor 2 and Osterix) in BMSCs. A muscle defect at the back and a bone defect at the femoral condyle of New Zealand white rabbits were introduced for evaluating the enhancement of bone regeneration of PAA and PAA/Se-HA30 composites. The implantation of muscle tissue revealed good biocompatibility of PAA and PAA/Se-HA30 composites. The implantation of bone defect showed that PAA/Se-HA30 composites enhanced bone formation at the defect site (8 weeks), exhibiting good bone conductivity. Therefore, the PAA-based composite was a promising candidate material for bone tissue regeneration.

Vanillin Promotes Osteoblast Differentiation, Mineral Apposition, and Antioxidant Effects in Pre-Osteoblasts

Antioxidant vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is used as a flavoring in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. Vanillin possesses various biological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer properties. This study aimed to investigate the biological activities of vanillin purified from Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Hara on bone-forming processes. Vanillin treatment induced mineralization as a marker for mature osteoblasts, after stimulating alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity. The bone-forming processes of vanillin are mainly mediated by the upregulation of the bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), phospho-Smad1/5/8, and runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) pathway during the differentiation of osteogenic cells. Moreover, vanillin promoted osteoblast-mediated bone-forming phenotypes by inducing migration and F-actin polymerization. Furthermore, we validated that vanillin-mediated bone-forming processes were attenuated by noggin and DKK1. Finally, we demonstrated that vanillin-mediated antioxidant effects prevent the death of osteoblasts during bone-forming processes. Overall, vanillin has bone-forming properties through the BMP2-mediated biological mechanism, indicating it as a bone-protective compound for bone health and bone diseases such as periodontitis and osteoporosis.

Uncovering hidden treasures: Mapping morphological changes in the differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts using deep learning

Deep Learning (DL) is becoming an increasingly popular technology being employed in life sciences research due to its ability to perform complex and time-consuming tasks with significantly greater speed, accuracy, and reproducibility than human researchers - allowing them to dedicate their time to more complex tasks. One potential application of DL is to analyze cell images taken by microscopes. Quantitative analysis of cell microscopy images remain a challenge - with manual cell characterization requiring excessive amounts of time and effort. DL can address these issues, by quickly extracting such data and enabling rigorous, empirical analysis of images. Here, DL is used to quantitively analyze images of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) differentiating into Osteoblasts (OBs), tracking morphological changes throughout this transition. The changes in morphology throughout the differentiation protocol provide evidence for a distinct path of morphological transformations that the cells undergo in their transition, with changes in perimeter being observable before changes in eceentricity. Subsequent differentiation experiments can be quantitatively compared with our dataset to concretely evaluate how different conditions affect differentiation and this paper can also be used as a guide for researchers on how to utilize DL workflows in their own labs.

Osteogenic Activities of Trifolirhizin as a Bioactive Compound for the Differentiation of Osteogenic Cells

Plant extracts are widely used as traditional medicines. Sophora flavescens Aiton-derived natural compounds exert various beneficial effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and antiregenerative activities, through their bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and alkaloids. In the present study, we investigated the biological effects of an S. flavescens-derived flavonoid, trifolirhizin (trifol), on the stimulation of osteogenic processes during osteoblast differentiation. Trifol (>98% purity) was successfully isolated from the root of S. flavescens and characterized. Trifol did not exhibit cellular toxicity in osteogenic cells, but promoted alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity, with enhanced expression of the osteoblast differentiation markers, including Alp, ColI, and Bsp. Trifol induced nuclear runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) expression during the differentiation of osteogenic cells, and concomitantly stimulated the major osteogenic signaling proteins, including GSK3β, β-catenin, and Smad1/5/8. Among the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), Trifol activated JNK, but not ERK1/2 and p38. Trifol also increased the osteoblast-mediated bone-forming phenotypes, including transmigration, F-actin polymerization, and mineral apposition, during osteoblast differentiation. Overall, trifol exhibits bioactive activities related to osteogenic processes via differentiation, migration, and mineralization. Collectively, these results suggest that trifol may serve as an effective phytomedicine for bone diseases such as osteoporosis.

Long noncoding RNA KCNMA1-AS1 promotes osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells by activating the SMAD9 signaling pathway

The human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) undergo intense osteogenic differentiation, a crucial bone formation mechanism. Evidence from prior studies suggested an association between long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs. However, precise roles and molecular mechanisms are still largely unknown. In this work, we report for the first time that lncRNA KCNMA1 antisense RNA 1 (KCNMA1-AS1) plays a vital role in regulating hBMSCs' osteogenic differentiation. Here, it was observed that the KCNMA1-AS1 expression levels were significantly upregulated during osteogenic differentiation. In addition, KCNMA1-AS1 overexpression enhanced in vitro osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs and in vivo bone formation, whereas knockdown of KCNMA1-AS1 resulted in the opposite result. Additionally, the interaction between KCNMA1-AS1 and mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 9 (SMAD9) was confirmed by an RNA pull-down experiment, mass spectrometry, and RIP assay. This interaction regulated the activation of the SMAD9 signaling pathway. Moreover, rescue assays demonstrated that the inhibitor of the SMAD9 signaling pathway reversed the stimulative effects on osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs by KCNMA1-AS1 overexpression. Altogether, our results stipulate that KCNMA1-AS1 promotes osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs via activating the SMAD9 signaling pathway and can serve as a biomarker and therapeutic target in treating bone defects.

Protective effect of quercetin on fetal development and congenital skeletal anomalies against exposure of pregnant Wistar rats to crude oil vapor

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological evidence indicates a relationship between maternal exposure to crude oil vapors (COV) during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Quercetin (QUE) is a plant flavonoid with purported antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, which has been shown to prevent birth defects. This study was aimed to investigate the protective role of QUE on fetal development and congenital skeletal anomalies caused by exposure of pregnant rats to COV.

METHODS

Twenty-four pregnant Wistar rats were randomly categorized into four groups of control, COV, COV + QUE, and QUE (50 mg/kg). The inhalation method was used to expose pregnant rats to COV from day 0 to 20 of pregnancy, and QUE was administered orally during this period. On day 20 of gestation, the animals were anesthetized and a laparotomy was performed, and then the weight and crown rump length (CRL) of the fetuses were determined. Skeletal stereomicroscopic evaluations of fetuses were performed using Alcian blue/Alizarin red staining method, and the expression of osteogenesis-related genes (Runx2 and BMP-4) was evaluated using qPCR.

RESULTS

This study showed that prenatal exposure to COV significantly reduced fetal weight and CRL, and expression of Runx2 and BMP-4 genes. Moreover, COV significantly increased the incidence of congenital skeletal anomalies such as cleft palate, spina bifida and non-ossification of the fetal bones. However, administration of QUE with exposure to COV improved fetal bone development and reduced congenital skeletal anomalies.

CONCLUSION

QUE can ameliorate the teratogenic effects of prenatal exposure to COV by increasing the expression of osteogenesis-related genes.

Methoxyflavones isolated from the whole plant of Scutellaria rubropunctata Hayata var. rubropunctata promote osteoblast differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells

In this study, we isolated two new methoxyflavones (1 and 2) and eight known methoxyflavones (3-10) from the whole plant of Scutellaria rubropunctata Hayata var. rubropunctata (SR). Based on spectroscopic analyses, the methoxyflavones were identified as 5,8,2',6'-tetramethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone (1) and 5,2',6'-trimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone (2). We reported SR might have effects on promoting osteoblast differentiation and stimulating estrogen receptor (ER) in the previous study. Then, the effects of 1-10 on pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells were investigated, and 1, 2, and 9 were observed to promote alkaline phosphatase activity. To evaluate their effect on osteogenesis-related genes, we performed gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR after treatment of MC3T3-E1 cells with these compounds. Although 2 was only effective at lower concentrations, 1 and 9 upregulated the mRNA levels of Runx2, Osterix, Osteopontin, Osteocalcin, Smad1, and Smad4. These results indicate that 1 and 9 may induce osteoblast differentiation by activating Runx2 via the BMP/Smad pathway and may play a central role in the promotion of osteoblast differentiation by SR. The ER agonist activity of 1-10 were tested using a luciferase reporter assay in HEK293 cells. However, none of the compounds exhibited remarkable activity. Thus, SR may contain other compounds that contribute to its ER agonist activity.

Biofabrication of functional bone tissue: defining tissue-engineered scaffolds from nature

Damage to bone leads to pain and loss of movement in the musculoskeletal system. Although bone can regenerate, sometimes it is damaged beyond its innate capacity. Research interest is increasingly turning to tissue engineering (TE) processes to provide a clinical solution for bone defects. Despite the increasing biomimicry of tissue-engineered scaffolds, significant gaps remain in creating the complex bone substitutes, which include the biochemical and physical conditions required to recapitulate bone cells' natural growth, differentiation and maturation. Combining advanced biomaterials with new additive manufacturing technologies allows the development of 3D tissue, capable of forming cell aggregates and organoids based on natural and stimulated cues. Here, we provide an overview of the structure and mechanical properties of natural bone, the role of bone cells, the remodelling process, cytokines and signalling pathways, causes of bone defects and typical treatments and new TE strategies. We highlight processes of selecting biomaterials, cells and growth factors. Finally, we discuss innovative tissue-engineered models that have physiological and anatomical relevance for cancer treatments, injectable stimuli gels, and other therapeutic drug delivery systems. We also review current challenges and prospects of bone TE. Overall, this review serves as guide to understand and develop better tissue-engineered bone designs.

Targeting strategies for bone diseases: signaling pathways and clinical studies

Since the proposal of Paul Ehrlich's magic bullet concept over 100 years ago, tremendous advances have occurred in targeted therapy. From the initial selective antibody, antitoxin to targeted drug delivery that emerged in the past decades, more precise therapeutic efficacy is realized in specific pathological sites of clinical diseases. As a highly pyknotic mineralized tissue with lessened blood flow, bone is characterized by a complex remodeling and homeostatic regulation mechanism, which makes drug therapy for skeletal diseases more challenging than other tissues. Bone-targeted therapy has been considered a promising therapeutic approach for handling such drawbacks. With the deepening understanding of bone biology, improvements in some established bone-targeted drugs and novel therapeutic targets for drugs and deliveries have emerged on the horizon. In this review, we provide a panoramic summary of recent advances in therapeutic strategies based on bone targeting. We highlight targeting strategies based on bone structure and remodeling biology. For bone-targeted therapeutic agents, in addition to improvements of the classic denosumab, romosozumab, and PTH1R ligands, potential regulation of the remodeling process targeting other key membrane expressions, cellular crosstalk, and gene expression, of all bone cells has been exploited. For bone-targeted drug delivery, different delivery strategies targeting bone matrix, bone marrow, and specific bone cells are summarized with a comparison between different targeting ligands. Ultimately, this review will summarize recent advances in the clinical translation of bone-targeted therapies and provide a perspective on the challenges for the application of bone-targeted therapy in the clinic and future trends in this area.

Revisiting Resveratrol as an Osteoprotective Agent: Molecular Evidence from In Vivo and In Vitro Studies

Resveratrol (RSV) (3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) is a stilbene found in abundance in berry fruits, peanuts, and some medicinal plants. It has a diverse range of pharmacological activities, underlining the significance of illness prevention and health promotion. The purpose of this review was to delve deeper into RSV's bone-protective properties as well as its molecular mechanisms. Several in vivo studies have found the bone-protective effects of RSV in postmenopausal, senile, and disuse osteoporosis rat models. RSV has been shown to inhibit NF-κB and RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis, oxidative stress, and inflammation while increasing osteogenesis and boosting differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts. Wnt/β-catenin, MAPKs/JNK/ERK, PI3K/AKT, FoxOs, microRNAs, and BMP2 are among the possible kinases and proteins involved in the underlying mechanisms. RSV has also been shown to be the most potent SIRT1 activator to cause stimulatory effects on osteoblasts and inhibitory effects on osteoclasts. RSV may, thus, represent a novel therapeutic strategy for increasing bone growth and reducing bone loss in the elderly and postmenopausal population.

Bioengineering extracellular vesicles: smart nanomaterials for bone regeneration

In the past decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key regulators of bone development, homeostasis and repair. EV-based therapies have the potential to circumnavigate key issues hindering the translation of cell-based therapies including functional tissue engraftment, uncontrolled differentiation and immunogenicity issues. Due to EVs' innate biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and high physiochemical stability, these naturally-derived nanoparticles have garnered growing interest as potential acellular nanoscale therapeutics for a variety of diseases. Our increasing knowledge of the roles these cell-derived nanoparticles play, has made them an exciting focus in the development of novel pro-regenerative therapies for bone repair. Although these nano-sized vesicles have shown promise, their clinical translation is hindered due to several challenges in the EV supply chain, ultimately impacting therapeutic efficacy and yield. From the biochemical and biophysical stimulation of parental cells to the transition to scalable manufacture or maximising vesicles therapeutic response in vivo, a multitude of techniques have been employed to improve the clinical efficacy of EVs. This review explores state of the art bioengineering strategies to promote the therapeutic utility of vesicles beyond their native capacity, thus maximising the clinical potential of these pro-regenerative nanoscale therapeutics for bone repair.

Porous BCP ceramics with nanoscale whisker structure accelerate bone regeneration by regulating inflammatory response

Inflammation-induced by biomaterials is a critical event to determine the success and efficiency of tissue repair. Macrophages are a major population that participates the biomaterial induced inflammation. The response of macrophages depends on the characteristics of biomaterials, thus causing a cascade reaction in subsequent biological processes. In this study, porous biphase calcium phosphate (BCP) ceramics with the different surface structures were constructed to compare the effect of surface structure on bone generation potential, and further reveal the inflammation-involved mechanism. Our results demonstrated that macrophages on three ceramics showed distinct morphologies and spreading areas. The nanoscale whisker structure did induce more bone generation in the mice thigh muscle. The in vitro result revealed that nanoscale whisker structure could drive macrophage polarization towards M1-like phenotype, indicated by a higher expression of pro-inflammatory specific markers (iNOS and CCR7), and mass secretion of TNF-α. Further research indicated that additional TNF-α could promote the osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). However, excess addition of TNF-α showed an opposite effect on the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs by initiating the NF-κB signaling pathway, which suppresses the osteogenesis process.

Timing Expression of miR203a-3p during OA Disease: Preliminary In Vitro Evidence

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative bone disease that involves the microenvironment and macroenvironment of joints. Progressive joint tissue degradation and loss of extracellular matrix elements, together with different grades of inflammation, are important hallmarks of OA disease. Therefore, the identification of specific biomarkers to distinguish the stages of disease becomes a primary necessity in clinical practice. To this aim, we investigated the role of miR203a-3p in OA progression starting from the evidence obtained by osteoblasts isolated from joint tissues of OA patients classified according to different Kellgren and Lawrence (KL) grading (KL ≤ 3 and KL > 3) and hMSCs treated with IL-1β. Through qRT-PCR analysis, it was found that osteoblasts (OBs) derived from the KL ≤ 3 group expressed high levels of miR203a-3p and low levels of ILs compared with those of OBs derived from the KL > 3 group. The stimulation with IL-1β improved the expression of miR203a-3p and the methylation of the IL-6 promoter gene, favoring an increase in relative protein expression. The gain and loss of function studies showed that the transfection with miR203a-3p inhibitor alone or in co-treatments with IL-1β was able to induce the expression of CX-43 and SP-1 and to modulate the expression of TAZ, in OBs derived from OA patients with KL ≤ 3 compared with KL > 3. These events, confirmed also by qRT-PCR analysis, Western blot, and ELISA assay performed on hMSCs stimulated with IL-1β, supported our hypothesis about the role of miR203a-3p in OA progression. The results suggested that during the early stage, miR203a-3p displayed a protective role reducing the inflammatory effects on CX-43, SP-1, and TAZ. During the OA progression the downregulation of miR203a-3p and consequently the upregulation of CX-43/SP-1 and TAZ expression improved the inflammatory response and the reorganization of the cytoskeleton. This role led to the subsequent stage of the disease, where the aberrant inflammatory and fibrotic responses determined the destruction of the joint.

Bone Differentiation Ability of CD146-Positive Stem Cells from Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth

Regenerative therapy for tissues by mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) transplantation has received much attention. The cluster of differentiation (CD)146 marker, a surface-antigen of stem cells, is crucial for angiogenic and osseous differentiation abilities. Bone regeneration is accelerated by the transplantation of CD146-positive deciduous dental pulp-derived mesenchymal stem cells contained in stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) into a living donor. However, the role of CD146 in SHED remains unclear. This study aimed to compare the effects of CD146 on cell proliferative and substrate metabolic abilities in a population of SHED. SHED was isolated from deciduous teeth, and flow cytometry was used to analyze the expression of MSCs markers. Cell sorting was performed to recover the CD146-positive cell population (CD146+) and CD146-negative cell population (CD146-). CD146 + SHED without cell sorting and CD146-SHED were examined and compared among three groups. To investigate the effect of CD146 on cell proliferation ability, an analysis of cell proliferation ability was performed using BrdU assay and MTS assay. The bone differentiation ability was evaluated using an alkaline phosphatase (ALP) stain after inducing bone differentiation, and the quality of ALP protein expressed was examined. We also performed Alizarin red staining and evaluated the calcified deposits. The gene expression of ALP, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), and osteocalcin (OCN) was analyzed using a real-time polymerase chain reaction. There was no significant difference in cell proliferation among the three groups. The expression of ALP stain, Alizarin red stain, ALP, BMP-2, and OCN was the highest in the CD146+ group. CD146 + SHED had higher osteogenic differentiation potential compared with SHED and CD146-SHED. CD146 contained in SHED may be a valuable population of cells for bone regeneration therapy.

Suffruticosol A elevates osteoblast differentiation targeting BMP2-Smad/1/5/8-RUNX2 in pre-osteoblasts

The Paeonia suffruticosa ANDR. (P. suffruticosa) is commonly used in traditional medicine for various purposes. Suffruticosol A (Suf-A), isolated from P. suffruticosa, is a beneficial compound with antibiofilm, antivirulence, and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of the present study was to investigate the biological effects of Suf-A on osteogenic processes in pre-osteoblasts. It was determined here in that Suf-A (>98.02%), isolated from P. suffruticosa, showed no cytotoxicity at 0.1-30 μM; however, it induced cytotoxicity at 50-100 μM in pre-osteoblasts. Suf-A increased osteogenic alkaline phosphatase activity and expression levels of noncollagenous proteins. Adhesion and trans-migration on the extracellular matrix were potentiated by Suf-A, but not by wound-healing migration. Suf-A did not affect autophagy or necroptosis during osteoblast differentiation. We found that Suf-A increased runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) levels and mineralized matrix formation. RUNX2 expression was mediated by Suf-A-induced BMP2-Smad1/5/8 and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, as demonstrated by Noggin, a BMP2 inhibitor. These results suggest that Suf-A is a potential natural osteogenic compound.

Osseous Tissue Engineering in the Management of Mandibular Osteoradionecrosis - An Evaluative Study

Introduction

Osteoradionecrosis (ORN), a non-infectious, necrotic condition of the bone, occurs as a major complication of radiotherapy to the irradiated site. Simple irrigation of the involved bone to partial or complete resection of the involved bones is being employed in its conventional management. Osseous tissue engineering (OTE) provides a new strategy by regenerating bone cells along with biocompatible scaffolds and micromolecules to produce an engineered osseous tissue.

Materials and Methods

In this study, mandibular ORN following radiation secondary to oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma was included. OTE with composite engineered tissue containing a mixture of autologous culture expanded dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs), autologous uncultured bone marrow aspiration concentrate (BMAC) and autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) loaded in β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) or hydroxyapatite (HA) sponge scaffold was used in the mandibular defect and the surrounding tissues. An assessment of clinical, radiological and functional attributes was done.

Results

A total of six cases with a mean age of 58.6 years were included in the study. We noted significant improvement in the mean post-operative score for pain and mouth opening; functional improvement in eating solid/liquid food, tongue movement, speech and deglutition were observed. The aesthetics was measured with Vancouver score and revealed a significance at P < 0.05; also lip competency and occlusion were noted in all the patients. No major complications were noticed until a mean follow-up of 28 months.

Discussion

Tissue engineering with a regenerative cocktail of autologous culture expanded DPSCs, autologous uncultured BMAC and autologous PRP loaded in HA or β-TCP utilised in the surgical reconstruction of the mandible is an effective treatment modality in the management of mandibular ORN following irradiation.

Non-additive effect of the DNA methylation inhibitor, 5-Aza-dC, and glass as a culture surface on osteogenic differentiation

The clinical need for bone regenerative solutions is expanding with increasing life expectancy and escalating incidence of accidents. Several strategies are being investigated to enhance the osteogenic differentiation of stem cells. We previously reported two different approaches for this purpose, in monolayer and three-dimensional cell culture. The first approach was based on pretreating cells with 5-Aza-dC, a DNA methylation inhibitor, before the applying the differentiation media. The second approach was based on culturing cells on a glass surface during differentiation. In this study, we investigated the potential effect of combining both methods. Our results suggested that both approaches were associated with decreasing global DNA methylation levels. Cells cultured as a monolayer on glass surface showed enhancement in alkaline phosphatase activity at day 10, while 5-Aza-dC pretreatment enhanced the activity at day 5, irrespective of the culture surface. In three-dimensional pellet culture, 5-Aza-dC pretreatment enhanced osteogenesis through Runx-2 and TGF-β1 upregulation while the glass surface induced Osterix. Furthermore, pellets cultured on glass showed upregulation of a group of miRNAs, including pro-osteogenesis miR- 20a and miR -148b and anti-osteogenesis miR -125b, miR -31, miR -138, and miR -133a. Interestingly, 5-Aza-dC was not associated with a change of miRNAs in cells cultured on tissue culture plastic but reverted the upregulated miRNAs on the glass to the basal level. This study confirms the two approaches for enhancing osteogenic differentiation and contradicts their combination.

Effects of a Whole Plant Extract of Scutellaria rubropunctata var. rubropunctata on Bone Metabolism with Estrogen Receptor Activation

We screened natural resources for estrogen receptor (ER)-activating and bone metabolism-promoting activities with the aim of finding potential treatments for osteoporosis. A screen of 1531 extracts from Ryukyu Arc plants using a luciferase reporter assay identified an 80% MeOH extract of Scutellaria rubropunctata var. rubropunctata (SRE) with dose-dependent ER transcription-promoting activity. Importantly, SRE had no proliferative effect on human breast cancer cells. SRE enhanced the ALP activity of pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells after 72 h in culture and slightly enhanced mineralization at 14 and 21 d. SRE did not significantly affect the TRAP activity of RAW264.7 cells. Gene expression analysis in MC3T3-E1 cells by quantitative real-time PCR revealed that SRE upregulated the mRNA levels of Runx2, Osterix (Osx), Osteopontin (Opn), Osteocalcin (Ocn), Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5 at 72 h, and those of Runx2, Osx, Smad1, Smad4, and Smad5 at 21 d of osteogenic induction. Analysis of the expression levels of osteogenic markers suggested that SRE may promote osteogenic differentiation by acting at the early stage of differentiation rather than at the late stage of differentiation. These results indicate that SRE activates ER and induces osteoblast differentiation by activating Runx2 and Osx through the BMP/Smad pathway, suggesting that SRE may be useful for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Overexpression of Neurogenin 1 Negatively Regulates Osteoclast and Osteoblast Differentiation

Neurogenin 1 (Ngn1) belongs to the basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) transcription factor family and plays important roles in specifying neuronal differentiation. The present study aimed to determine whether forced Ngn1 expression contributes to bone homeostasis. Ngn1 inhibited the p300/CREB-binding protein-associated factor (PCAF)-induced acetylation of nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1) and runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) through binding to PCAF, which led to the inhibition of osteoclast and osteoblast differentiation, respectively. In addition, Ngn1 overexpression inhibited the TNF-α- and IL-17A-mediated enhancement of osteoclast differentiation and IL-17A-induced osteoblast differentiation. These findings indicate that Ngn1 can serve as a novel therapeutic agent for treating ankylosing spondylitis with abnormally increased bone formation and resorption.

CUL4B Upregulates RUNX2 to Promote the Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells by Epigenetically Repressing the Expression of miR-320c and miR-372/373-3p

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) within the periodontal ligament (PDL), termed periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), have a self-renewing capability and a multidirectional differentiation potential. The molecular mechanisms that regulate multidirectional differentiation, such as the osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs, remain to be elucidated. Cullin 4B (CUL4B), which assembles the CUL4B-RING ubiquitin ligase (CRL4B) complex, is involved in regulating a variety of developmental and physiological processes including the skeletal development and stemness of cancer stem cells. However, nothing is known about the possible role of CUL4B in the osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs. Here, we found that knockdown of CUL4B decreased the proliferation, migration, stemness and osteogenic differentiation ability of PDLSCs. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that CUL4B cooperates with the PRC2 complex to repress the expression of miR-320c and miR-372/373-3p, which results in the upregulation of RUNX2, a master transcription factor (TF) that regulates osteogenic differentiation. In brief, the present study reveals the role of CUL4B as a new regulator of osteogenic differentiation in PDLSCs.

Knockdown of HDAC9 Inhibits Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Partially by Suppressing the MAPK Signaling Pathway

Background

Histone deacetylase 9 (HDAC9) is a member of the HDAC gene family that plays essential roles in the organization of transcriptional regulation by catalyzing deacetylation of histone proteins. However, the effects of HDAC9 on osteonecrosis of femoral head (ONFH) have not been investigated. The present study aimed to reveal whether histone deacetylase 9 (HDAC9) regulated osteogenic differentiation.

Methods

A lentiviral knockdown HDAC9 model was established in hBMSCs. Osteoblast-specific gene expression, such as Runx2, OCN was examined by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. Though transcriptome sequencing and enrichment analysis, related signal pathways caused by down-regulation of HDAC9 were screened. The effect of HDAC9 on MAPK signaling pathway was determined by Western blot. Eventually, tert-Butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) was used to examine the effect of MAPK activation on osteogenesis in HDAC9 knockdown hBMSCs.

Results

A lentiviral knockdown HDAC9 model was successfully established in hBMSCs. HDAC9 knockdown significantly inhibited osteoblast-specific gene expression, such as runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), osteocalcin (OCN) and mineral deposition in vitro. Moreover, a total of 950 DEGs were identified in HDAC9-knockdown hBMSCs. We discovered that the MAPK signaling pathway might be related to this process by pathway enrichment analysis. HDAC9 knockdown significantly reduced the expression level of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2). Finally, the decreased osteogenesis due to HDAC9 knockdown was partly rescued by a MAPK signaling pathway activator.

Conclusion

Taken together, these results suggest that HDAC9 knockdown inhibits osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs, partially through the MAPK signaling pathway. HDAC9 may serve as a potential target for the treatment of ONFH.

Protein Expression of AEBP1, MCM4, and FABP4 Differentiate Osteogenic, Adipogenic, and Mesenchymal Stromal Stem Cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) gain an increasing focus in the field of regenerative medicine due to their differentiation abilities into chondrocytes, adipocytes, and osteoblastic cells. However, it is apparent that the transformation processes are extremely complex and cause cellular heterogeneity. The study aimed to characterize differences between MSCs and cells after adipogenic (AD) or osteoblastic (OB) differentiation at the proteome level. Comparative proteomic profiling was performed using tandem mass spectrometry in data-independent acquisition mode. Proteins were quantified by deep neural networks in library-free mode and correlated to the Molecular Signature Database (MSigDB) hallmark gene set collections for functional annotation. We analyzed 4108 proteins across all samples, which revealed a distinct clustering between MSCs and cell differentiation states. Protein expression profiling identified activation of the Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) signaling pathway after AD. In addition, two distinct protein marker panels could be defined for osteoblastic and adipocytic cell lineages. Hereby, overexpression of AEBP1 and MCM4 for OB as well as of FABP4 for AD was detected as the most promising molecular markers. Combination of deep neural network and machine-learning algorithms with data-independent mass spectrometry distinguish MSCs and cell lineages after adipogenic or osteoblastic differentiation. We identified specific proteins as the molecular basis for bone formation, which could be used for regenerative medicine in the future.

Recent Advances in Enhancement Strategies for Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Bone Tissue Engineering

Although bone is an organ that displays potential for self-healing after damage, bone regeneration does not occur properly in some cases, and it is still a challenge to treat large bone defects. The development of bone tissue engineering provides a new approach to the treatment of bone defects. Among various cell types, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent one of the most promising seed cells in bone tissue engineering due to their functions of osteogenic differentiation, immunomodulation, and secretion of cytokines. Regulation of osteogenic differentiation of MSCs has become an area of extensive research over the past few years. This review provides an overview of recent research progress on enhancement strategies for MSC osteogenesis, including improvement in methods of cell origin selection, culture conditions, biophysical stimulation, crosstalk with macrophages and endothelial cells, and scaffolds. This is favorable for further understanding MSC osteogenesis and the development of MSC-based bone tissue engineering.

Transcriptome Profiling of Osteoblasts in a Medaka (Oryzias latipes) Osteoporosis Model Identifies Mmp13b as Crucial for Osteoclast Activation

Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) play crucial roles in extracellular matrix (ECM) modulation during osteoclast-driven bone remodeling. In the present study, we used transcriptome profiling of bone cells in a medaka model for osteoporosis and bone regeneration to identify factors critical for bone remodeling and homeostasis. This identified mmp13b, which was strongly expressed in osteoblast progenitors and upregulated under osteoporotic conditions and during regeneration of bony fin rays. To characterize the role of mmp13b in bone remodeling, we generated medaka mmp13b mutants by CRISPR/Cas9. We found that mmp13b mutants form normal numbers of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. However, osteoclast activity was severely impaired under osteoporotic conditions. In mmp13b mutants and embryos treated with the MMP13 inhibitor CL-82198, unmineralized collagens and mineralized bone matrix failed to be degraded. In addition, the dynamic migratory behavior of activated osteoclasts was severely affected in mmp13b mutants. Expression analysis showed that maturation genes were downregulated in mmp13b deficient osteoclasts suggesting that they remain in an immature and non-activated state. We also found that fin regeneration was delayed in mmp13b mutants with a concomitant alteration of the ECM and reduced numbers of osteoblast progenitors in regenerating joint regions. Together, our findings suggest that osteoblast-derived Mmp13b alters the bone ECM to allow the maturation and activation of osteoclasts during bone remodeling in a paracrine manner. Mmp13b-induced ECM alterations are also required to facilitate osteoblast progenitor recruitment and full regeneration of bony fin rays.

An apparently phylogeny-independent method for identification of skeletal (longitudinal) growth cessation (skeletal maturity) in birds

Identification of skeletal maturity is of interest as a measure of species longevity and for identifying its maximal achievable size/mass. Measurement of age on the basis of growth arrest/accentuation lines (LAGs) and external fundamental system (EFS) evidences cessation or at least extreme slowing of circumferential bone growth. Such intramembranous (periosteal)-derived growth is distinct from the endochondral ossification responsible for longitudinal growth and therefore achievable organismal size/mass. As subchondral trans-cortical channels are required for nourishment, their loss should identify cessation of longitudinal growth. Predicated on phylogenetic bracketing/relationship and shared anatomical structures with and without growth plates, birds represent an appropriate model for the study of dinosaur ontogeny. Persistence of trans-cortical subchondral channels in the long bones of birds are examined at 100-200X magnification and correlated with bone length. Trans-cortical channels are present in subchondral articular surfaces, but disappear when terminal longitudinal growth is achieved. Articular vascular channels perforating articular surfaces from within the bone are detected. Loss of penetrating channels is interpreted as evidence of skeletal growth cessation, identifying the longitudinal bone length at which skeletal growth cessation has been achieved. The current study provides evidence that maximal bone length does correlate with endochondral cessation growth. Failure of circumferential growth reduction/cessation to correlate with bone length may be related to lack of synchronicity of periosteal-based circumferential growth with the endochondral process responsible for bone lengthening. Loss/closure of articular vascular channels may be the most reliable measure of a bird's achievement of maximal growth (indicating cessation of appendicular element lengthening). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Circulating cytokines present in multiple myeloma patients inhibit the osteoblastic differentiation of adipose stem cells

Myeloma is characterized by bone lesions, which are related to both an increased osteoclast activity and a defect in the differentiation of medullary mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into osteoblasts. Outside the medullary environment, adipocyte-derived MSCs (ASCs) could represent a source of functional osteoblasts. However, we recently found a defect in the osteoblastic differentiation of ASCs from myeloma patients (MM-ASCs). We examined the effects of plasma from myeloma patients at diagnosis (MM-plasmas) and in complete remission (CR-plasmas) and from healthy donors on the osteoblastic differentiation of healthy donor-derived ASCs (HD-ASCs). Osteoblastogenesis in HD-ASCs was suppressed by MM-plasmas. Seven cytokines (ANG1, ENA-78, EGF, PDGF-AA/AB/BB, and TARC) were increased in MM-plasmas and separately inhibited the osteoblastic differentiation of HD-ASCs. Comparison of MM-ASCs and HD-ASCs by RNA sequencing showed that two master genes characterizing adipocyte differentiation, CD36 and PPARγ, were upregulated in MM-ASCs as compared to HD-ASCs. Finally, we demonstrated a significant increase in CD36 and PPARγ expression in HD-ASCs in the presence of MM-plasmas or the seven cytokines individually, similarly as in MM-ASCs. We conclude that specific cytokines in MM-plasmas, besides the well-known DKK1, inhibit the osteoblastic differentiation of MM- and HD-ASCs with a skewing towards adipocyte differentiation.

Application of decellularized bone matrix as a bioscaffold in bone tissue engineering

Autologous bone grafts are commonly used as the gold standard to repair and regenerate diseased bones. However, they are strongly associated with postoperative complications, especially at the donor site, and increased surgical costs. In an effort to overcome these limitations, tissue engineering (TE) has been proposed as an alternative to promote bone repair. The successful outcome of tissue engineering depends on the microstructure and composition of the materials used as scaffold. Decellularized bone matrix-based biomaterials have been applied as bioscaffolds in bone tissue engineering. These biomaterials play an important role in providing the mechanical and physical microenvironment needed by cells to proliferate and survive. Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) can be used as a powder, hydrogel and electrospun scaffolds. These bioscaffolds mimic the native microenvironment due to their structure similar to the original tissue. The aim of this review is to highlight the bone decellularization techniques. Herein we discuss: (1) bone structure; (2) properties of an ideal scaffold; (3) the potential of decellularized bone as bioscaffolds; (4) terminal sterilization of decellularized bone; (5) cell removing confirmation in decellularized tissues; and (6) post decellularization procedures. Finally, the improvement of bone formation by dECM and the immunogenicity aspect of using the decellularized bone matrix are presented, to illustrate how novel dECM-based materials can be used as bioscaffold in tissue engineering. A comprehensive understanding of tissue engineering may allow for better incorporation of therapeutic approaches in bone defects allowing for bone repair and regeneration.

Extracellular Vesicles in Musculoskeletal Regeneration: Modulating the Therapy of the Future

Tissue regeneration is a hot topic in health sciences, particularly because effective therapies promoting the healing of several cell types are lacking, specifically those of the musculoskeletal system. Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells (MSCs) have been identified as crucial players in bone homeostasis, and are considered a promising therapy for diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA) and Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA). However, some known drawbacks limit their use, particularly ethical issues and immunological rejections. Thus, MSCs byproducts, namely Extracellular Vesicles (EVs), are emerging as potential solutions to overcome some of the issues of the original cells. EVs can be modulated by either cellular preconditioning or vesicle engineering, and thus represent a plastic tool to be implemented in regenerative medicine. Further, the use of biomaterials is important to improve EV delivery and indirectly to modulate their content and secretion. This review aims to connect the dots among MSCs, EVs, and biomaterials, in the context of musculoskeletal diseases.

ac4C acetylation of RUNX2 catalyzed by NAT10 spurs osteogenesis of BMSCs and prevents ovariectomy-induced bone loss

N-acetyltransferase 10 (NAT10) is the key enzyme for N4-acetylcytidine (ac4C) modification of mRNA, which participates in various cellular processes and is related to many diseases. Here, we explore the relationships among osteoblast differentiation, NAT10, and ac4C, and we found that NAT0 expression and the ac4C level of total RNA were decreased in the bone tissues of bilateral ovariectomized (OVX) mice and osteoporosis patients. Adenoviruses overexpressing NAT10 reversed bone loss, and Remodelin, an NAT10 inhibitor, enhanced the loss of bone mass in OVX mice. Moreover, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) with low-level ac4C modification formed fewer calcium nodules in vitro with NAT10 silencing, whereas BMSCs with high-level ac4C modification formed more calcium nodules with NAT10 overexpression. Moreover, we demonstrated that the ac4C level of runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) mRNA was increased after BMSCs were cultured in osteogenic medium (OM) and decreased after NAT10 silencing. The RUNX2 mRNA half-life and protein expression decreased after silencing NAT10 in BMSCs. Therefore, NAT10-based ac4C modification promotes the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs by regulating the RUNX2 ac4C level. Because abnormal levels of NAT10 are probably one of the mechanisms responsible for osteoporosis, NAT10 is a new potential therapeutic target for this disease.

Calycosin-7-O-β-Glucoside Isolated from Astragalus membranaceus Promotes Osteogenesis and Mineralization in Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Stem cells have received attention in various diseases, such as inflammatory, cancer, and bone diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells that are critical for forming and repairing bone tissues. Herein, we isolated calycosin-7-O-β-glucoside (Caly) from the roots of Astragalus membranaceus, which is one of the most famous medicinal herbs, and investigated the osteogenic activities of Caly in MSCs. Caly did not affect cytotoxicity against MSCs, whereas Caly enhanced cell migration during the osteogenesis of MSCs. Caly increased the expression and enzymatic activities of ALP and the formation of mineralized nodules during the osteogenesis of MSCs. The osteogenesis and bone-forming activities of Caly are mediated by bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), phospho-Smad1/5/8, Wnt3a, phospho-GSK3β, and phospho-AKT, inducing the expression of runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2). In addition, Caly-mediated osteogenesis and RUNX2 expression were attenuated by noggin and wortmannin. Moreover, the effects were validated in pre-osteoblasts committed to the osteoblast lineages from MSCs. Overall, our results provide novel evidence that Caly stimulates osteoblast lineage commitment of MSCs by triggering RUNX2 expression, suggesting Caly as a potential anabolic drug to prevent bone diseases.

Cdkn1a deletion or suppression by cyclic stretch enhance the osteogenic potential of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived cultures

CDKN1A/P21 is a potent inhibitor of cell cycle progression and its overexpression is thought to be associated with inhibition of normal bone regenerative osteogenesis during spaceflight. To test whether CDKN1A/P21 regulates osteogenesis in response to mechanical loading we studied cyclic stretch versus static culture of Cdkn1a^-/- (null) or wildtype primary mouse bone marrow osteoprogenitors during 21-day ex-vivo mineralization assays. Cyclically stretched Cdkn1a^-/- cells are 3.95-fold more proliferative than wildtype, while static Cdkn1a^-/- cells show a 2.50-fold increase. Furthermore, stage-specific single cell RNAseq analyses show expression of Cdkn1a is strongly suppressed by cyclic stretch in early and late osteoblasts, and minimally in the progenitor population. Lastly, both stretch and/or Cdkn1a deletion cause population shift from osteoprogenitors to osteoblasts, also indicating increased differentiation. Collectively, our results support the hypothesis that Cdkn1a constitutively plays a mechano-reversible anti-proliferative role during osteogenesis and suggests a new molecular target to counter regenerative deficits caused by disuse.

PDCD4 Negatively Regulated Osteogenic Differentiation and Bone Defect Repair of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Through GSK-3β/β-Catenin Pathway

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to be involved in bone injury repair. Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) is not only a tumor suppressor gene but also plays roles in the regulation of MSC function. The aim of the study was to uncover PDCD4 potential regulatory roles and mechanisms in the osteogenic differentiation and bone defect repair of MSCs. shRNA technique was used to knock down PDCD4 expression in umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (shPDCD4-UCMSCs). Their phenotype was characterized by flow cytometry and the differentiation potential was verified. We found that PDCD4 knockdown did not affect the surface molecule expression of UCMSCs, but significantly enhanced their osteogenic differentiation and osteogenesis-related molecule expression. Mechanistically, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) phosphorylation and β-catenin expression were significantly increased in shPDCD4-UCMSCs during the osteogenic differentiation process. The β-catenin inhibitor PNU-74654 reversed shPDCD4-increased osteogenesis and osteogenesis-related molecule expression. The results of animal experiments showed that shPDCD4-UCMSCs markedly improved the defect healing in rabbits. Our findings suggest that PDCD4 acts as a negative regulator of MSC osteogenic differentiation through GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway. Targeting PDCD4 may be a way to improve MSC-mediated therapeutic effects on bone injury.

Bifunctional Role of CrkL during Bone Remodeling

Coupled signaling between bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts is crucial to the maintenance of bone homeostasis. We previously reported that v-crk avian sarcoma virus CT10 oncogene homolog-like (CrkL), which belongs to the Crk family of adaptors, inhibits bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2)-mediated osteoblast differentiation, while enhancing receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation. In this study, we investigated whether CrkL can also regulate the coupling signals between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, facilitating bone homeostasis. Osteoblastic CrkL strongly decreased RANKL expression through its inhibition of runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) transcription. Reduction in RANKL expression by CrkL in osteoblasts resulted in the inhibition of not only osteoblast-dependent osteoclast differentiation but also osteoclast-dependent osteoblast differentiation, suggesting that CrkL participates in the coupling signals between osteoblasts and osteoclasts via its regulation of RANKL expression. Therefore, CrkL bifunctionally regulates osteoclast differentiation through both a direct and indirect mechanism while it inhibits osteoblast differentiation through its blockade of both BMP2 and RANKL reverse signaling pathways. Collectively, these data suggest that CrkL is involved in bone homeostasis, where it helps to regulate the complex interactions of the osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and their coupling signals.

Biological Mechanisms of Paeonoside in the Differentiation of Pre-Osteoblasts and the Formation of Mineralized Nodules

Paeonia suffruticosa is a magnificent and long-lived woody plant that has traditionally been used to treat various diseases including inflammatory, neurological, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. In the present study, we demonstrated the biological mechanisms of paeonoside (PASI) isolated from the dried roots of P. suffruticosa in pre-osteoblasts. Herein, we found that PASI has no cytotoxic effects on pre-osteoblasts. Migration assay showed that PASI promoted wound healing and transmigration in osteoblast differentiation. PASI increased early osteoblast differentiation and mineralized nodule formation. In addition, PASI enhanced the expression of Wnt3a and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) and activated their downstream molecules, Smad1/5/8 and β-catenin, leading to increases in runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) expression during osteoblast differentiation. Furthermore, PASI-mediated osteoblast differentiation was attenuated by inhibiting the BMP2 and Wnt3a pathways, which was accompanied by reduction in the expression of RUNX2 in the nucleus. Taken together, our findings provide evidence that PASI enhances osteoblast differentiation and mineralized nodules by regulating RUNX2 expression through the BMP2 and Wnt3a pathways, suggesting a potential role for PASI targeting osteoblasts to treat bone diseases including osteoporosis and periodontitis.

Coupling Osteogenesis and Vasculogenesis in Engineered Orthopedic Tissues

Inadequate vascularization of engineered tissue constructs is a main challenge in developing a clinically impactful therapy for large, complex, and recalcitrant bone defects. It is well established that bone and blood vessels form concomitantly during development, as well as during repair after injury. Endothelial cells (ECs) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are known to be key players in orthopedic tissue regeneration and vascularization, and these cell types have been used widely in tissue engineering strategies to create vascularized bone. Coculture studies have demonstrated that there is crosstalk between ECs and MSCs that can lead to synergistic effects on tissue regeneration. At the same time, the complexity in fabricating, culturing, and characterizing engineered tissue constructs containing multiple cell types presents a challenge in creating multifunctional tissues. In particular, the timing, spatial distribution, and cell phenotypes that are most conducive to promoting concurrent bone and vessel formation are not well understood. This review describes the processes of bone and vascular development, and how these have been harnessed in tissue engineering strategies to create vascularized bone. There is an emphasis on interactions between ECs and MSCs, and the culture systems that can be used to understand and control these interactions within a single engineered construct. Developmental engineering strategies to mimic endochondral ossification are discussed as a means of generating vascularized orthopedic tissues. The field of tissue engineering has made impressive progress in creating tissue replacements. However, the development of larger, more complex, and multifunctional engineered orthopedic tissues will require a better understanding of how osteogenesis and vasculogenesis are coupled in tissue regeneration. Impact statement Vascularization of large engineered tissue volumes remains a challenge in developing new and more biologically functional bone grafts. A better understanding of how blood vessels develop during bone formation and regeneration is needed. This knowledge can then be applied to develop new strategies for promoting both osteogenesis and vasculogenesis during the creation of engineered orthopedic tissues. This article summarizes the processes of bone and blood vessel development, with a focus on how endothelial cells and mesenchymal stromal cells interact to form vascularized bone both during development and growth, as well as tissue healing. It is meant as a resource for tissue engineers who are interested in creating vascularized tissue, and in particular to those developing cell-based therapies for large, complex, and recalcitrant bone defects.

Bioactivity and Delivery Strategies of Phytochemical Compounds in Bone Tissue Regeneration

Plant-derived secondary metabolites represent a reservoir of phytochemicals for regenerative medicine application because of their varied assortment of biological properties including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and tissue remodeling properties. In addition, bioactive phytochemicals can be easily available, are often more cost-effective in large-scale industrialization, and can be better tolerated compared to conventional treatments mitigating the long-lasting side effects of synthetic compounds. Unfortunately, their poor bioavailability and lack of long-term stability limit their clinical impact. Nanotechnology-based delivery systems can overcome these limitations increasing bioactive molecules’ local effectiveness with reduction of the possible side effects on healthy bone. This review explores new and promising strategies in the area of delivery systems with particular emphasis on solutions that enhance bioavailability and/or health effects of plant-derived phytochemicals such as resveratrol, quercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and curcumin in bone tissue regeneration.

Application of Propolis in Protecting Skeletal and Periodontal Health-A Systematic Review

Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress are two major mechanisms leading to the imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation rate, and subsequently, bone loss. Thus, functional foods and dietary compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory could protect skeletal health. This review aims to examine the current evidence on the skeletal protective effects of propolis, a resin produced by bees, known to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. A literature search was performed using Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science to identify studies on the effects of propolis on bone health. The search string used was (i) propolis AND (ii) (bone OR osteoporosis OR osteoblasts OR osteoclasts OR osteocytes). Eighteen studies were included in the current review. The available experimental studies demonstrated that propolis could prevent bone loss due to periodontitis, dental implantitis, and diabetes in animals. Combined with synthetic and natural grafts, it could also promote fracture healing. Propolis protects bone health by inhibiting osteoclastogenesis and promoting osteoblastogenesis, partly through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Despite the promising preclinical results, the skeletal protective effects of propolis are yet to be proven in human studies. This research gap should be bridged before nutraceuticals based on propolis with specific health claims can be developed.

Paeonolide as a Novel Regulator of Core-Binding Factor Subunit Alpha-1 in Bone-Forming Cells

Paeonia suffruticosa has been extensively used as a traditional medicine with various beneficial effects; paeonolide (PALI) was isolated from its dried roots. This study aimed to investigate the novel effects and mechanisms of PALI in pre-osteoblasts. Here, cell viability was evaluated using an MTT assay. Early and late osteoblast differentiation was examined by analyzing the activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and by staining it with Alizarin red S (ARS). Cell migration was assessed using wound healing and Boyden chamber assays. Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses were used to examine the intracellular signaling pathways and differentiation proteins. PALI (0.1, 1, 10, 30, and 100 μM) showed no cytotoxic or proliferative effects in pre-osteoblasts. In the absence of cytotoxicity, PALI (1, 10, and 30 μM) promoted wound healing and transmigration during osteoblast differentiation. ALP staining demonstrated that PALI (1, 10, and 30 μM) promoted early osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner, and ARS staining showed an enhanced mineralized nodule formation, a key indicator of late osteoblast differentiation. Additionally, low concentrations of PALI (1 and 10 μM) increased the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)–Smad1/5/8 and Wnt–β-catenin pathways in osteoblast differentiation. Particularly, PALI (1 and 10 μM) increased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 compared with BMP2 treatment, an FDA-approved drug for bone diseases. Furthermore, PALI-mediated early and late osteoblast differentiation was abolished in the presence of the ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126. PALI-induced RUNX2 (Cbfa1) expression and nuclear localization were also attenuated by blocking the ERK1/2 pathway during osteoblast differentiation. We suggest that PALI has biologically novel activities, such as enhanced osteoblast differentiation and bone mineralization mainly through the intracellular ERK1/2-RUNX2 signaling pathway, suggesting that PALI might have therapeutic action and aid the treatment and prevention of bone diseases, such as osteoporosis and periodontitis.

The role of microRNAs in the osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells and bone pathologies

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been identified in many adult tissues. MSCs can regenerate through cell division or differentiate into adipocytes, osteoblasts and chondrocytes. As a result, MSCs have become an important source of cells in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine for bone tissue and cartilage. Several epigenetic factors are believed to play a role in MSCs differentiation. Among these, microRNA (miRNA) regulation is involved in the fine modulation of gene expression during osteogenic/chondrogenic differentiation. It has been reported that miRNAs are involved in bone homeostasis by modulating osteoblast gene expression. In addition, countless evidence has demonstrated that miRNAs dysregulation is involved in the development of osteoporosis and bone fractures. The deregulation of miRNAs expression has also been associated with several malignancies including bone cancer. In this context, bone-associated circulating miRNAs may be useful biomarkers for determining the predisposition, onset and development of osteoporosis, as well as in clinical applications to improve the diagnosis, follow-up and treatment of cancer and metastases. Overall, this review will provide an overview of how miRNAs activities participate in osteogenic/chondrogenic differentiation, while addressing the role of miRNA regulatory effects on target genes. Finally, the role of miRNAs in pathologies and therapies will be presented.

Wnt7a promotes the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability of differentiating into osteoblasts. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of MSC differentiation into osteoblasts may provide novel therapeutic strategies for bone‑related diseases. Increasing evidence has confirmed that Wnt signaling plays the key role in osteoblast differentiation; however, the role of individual Wnt proteins in osteogenesis needs to be investigated. The present study thus aimed to explore the role of Wnt7a in bone formation. For this purpose, human bone‑derived MSCs were identified by flow cytometry and the cell differentiation potential, including osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation was examined. In order to explore the role of Wnt7a in MSC osteogenic differentiation, Wnt7a expression was measured at the mRNA and protein level following treatment with the osteogenic inducer, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)4/7, and following the induction of osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation. The ectopic expression of Wnt7a in MSCs was confirmed and its influence on MSC osteogenic differentiation was detected using osteocyte markers and by Alizarin Red S staining. Mechanistically, the influence of Wnt7a on Runt‑related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) expression was examined at the mRNA and protein level. The regulatory effects of Wnt7a on RUNX2 promoter activities were examined by promoter reporter assay, and by examining the binding of TCF1, a downstream target of Wnt, to the RUNX2 promoter by ChIP assay. The results revealed that the knockdown of Wnt7a in MSCs decreased the expression of osteocyte markers and inhibited osteogenic differentiation. In accordance, the overexpression of Wnt7a in MSCs increased the expression of osteocyte markers and promoted osteogenic differentiation. Mechanistically, the knockdown of Wnt7a in MSCs reduced RUNX2 expression and the overexpression of Wnt7a in MSCs promoted RUNX2 expression. Furthermore, it was confirmed that Wnt7a regulated RUNX2 promoter activities by promoter report assay, and by examining the binding of TCF1 to the RUNX2 promoter by ChIP assay. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that Wnt7a plays a key role in MSC differentiation into osteoblasts and the findings presented herein may provide a promising therapy target for bone‑related diseases.

Ziyuglycoside I Upregulates RUNX2 through ERK1/2 in Promoting Osteoblast Differentiation and Bone Mineralization

Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) is a perennial herbaceous plant and its roots have been used as an important traditional medicine for over 2000 years. Ziyuglycoside I (Ziyu), an active compound isolated from the roots of S. officinalis L., has shown biological effects such as anti-oxidant, antiviral, and antiwrinkle activities. This study aimed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of action of Ziyu on cytotoxicity, migration, and differentiation of pre-osteoblasts. Herein, at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 [Formula: see text]M, Ziyu was not cytotoxic against pre-osteoblasts. Alkaline phosphatase activity assay and staining, and migration assay showed that Ziyu increased cell migration and promoted early osteoblast differentiation, followed by the enhancement of mineralized nodule formation in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by Alizarin Red S staining. In addition, Ziyu increased the protein levels of runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) during osteoblast differentiation, whereas it did not affect the phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8 and GSK3b and expression of [Formula: see text]-catenin. Ziyu also activated ERK1/2 and mitogen-activated protein kinase during osteoblast differentiation, and ERK1/2 inhibitor attenuated Ziyu-mediated RUNX2 expression and nuclear accumulation. Furthermore, Ziyu-mediated early and late osteoblast differentiation was significantly suppressed by the inhibition of ERK1/2, which was accompanied by attenuation in the mRNA levels of osteoblast-related genes including bone sialoprotein, osteopontin, and osteocalcin. Taken together, the findings of this study provide evidence that Ziyu promotes cell migration, osteoblast differentiation, and bone mineralization and suggest a potential role for Ziyu in the treatment of bone diseases.

Ectopic models recapitulating morphological and functional features of articular cartilage

BACKGROUND

Articular cartilage is an extremely specialized connective tissue which covers all diarthrodial joints. Implantation of chondrogenic cells without or with additional biomaterial scaffolds in ectopic locationsin vivo generates substitutes of cartilage with structural and functional characteristics that are used in fundamental investigations while also serving as a basis for translational studies.

METHODS

Literature search in Pubmed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This narrative review summarizes the most relevant ectopic models, among which subcutaneous, intramuscular, and kidney capsule transplantation and elaborates on implanted cells and biomaterial scaffolds and on their use to recapitulate morphological and functional features of articular cartilage. Although the absence of a physiological joint environment and biomechanical stimuli is the major limiting factor, ectopic models are an established component for articular cartilage research aiming to generate a bridge between in vitro data and the clinically more relevant translational orthotopic in vivo models when their limitations are considered.

Limonoid Triterpene, Obacunone Increases Runt-Related Transcription Factor 2 to Promote Osteoblast Differentiation and Function

Root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. has been widely used as a traditional medicine and is a well-known anti-inflammatory agent. We isolated limonoid triterpene, obacunone (Obac) from the dried root bark of D. dasycarpus. Obac has been reported to exhibit varieties of biological activities including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-oxidant effects. This study aimed to investigate the beneficial effects and biological mechanisms of Obac in osteoblast differentiation and bone matrix mineralization. In the present study, Obac at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 μM showed no proliferation effects in MC3T3-E1. The treatment of Obac (1 and 10 μM) increased wound healing and migration rates in a dose-dependent manner. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity showed that Obac (1 and 10 μM) enhanced early osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner. Obac also increased late osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by the mineralized nodule formation of ARS staining. The effects of Obac on osteoblast differentiation was validated by the levels of mRNAs encoding the bone differentiation markers, including Alp, bone sialoprotein (Bsp), osteopontin (Opn), and osteocalcin (Ocn). Obac increased the expression of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and the phosphorylation of smad1/5/8, and the expression of runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2); Obac also inhibited GSK3β and upregulated the protein level of β-catenin in a dose-dependent manner during osteoblast differentiation. Obac-mediated osteoblast differentiation was attenuated by a BMP2 inhibitor, Noggin and a Wnt/β-catenin inhibitor, Dickkopf-1 (Dkk1) with the abolishment of RUNX2 expression and nuclear accumulation by Obac. Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate that Obac has pharmacological and biological activates to promote osteoblast differentiation and bone mineralization through BMP2, β-catenin, and RUNX2 pathways, and suggest that Obac might be a therapeutic effect for the treatment and prevention of bone diseases such as osteoporosis and periodontitis.