Operational Assessment of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets by Using an Anopheles Salivary Biomarker of Human-Vector Contact

Characterization of human exposure to Anopheles and Aedes bites using antibody-based biomarkers in rural zone of Cameroon

Malaria and Aedes-borne diseases remain major causes of mortality, morbidity, and disability in most developing countries. Surveillance of transmission patterns associated with vector control remains strategic for combating these diseases. Due to the limitions of current surveillance tools used to assess human exposure to mosquito bites, human antibody (Ab) responses to salivary peptides from Anopheles (gSG6-P1) and Aedes (Nterm-34kDa) are increasingly being used to measure direct human-Anopheles or Aedes contact. This study reports on the assessment of Human IgG Ab responses to gSG6-P1 and Nterm-34-kDa salivary peptides as biomarkers to track exposure to Anopheles and Aedes bites, in rural localities of Cameroon. Blood samples were collected between October and November 2022 from 173 individuals residing in four villages: Njombe, Kekem, Belabo, and Ouami. Sociodemographic characteristics and information regarding Long Lasting Insecticide Net (LLIN) ownership, use, and net characteristics were recorded using a questionnaire. The measurement of human IgG levels to gSG6-P1 and Nterm-34kDa peptides was conducted in blood samples using ELISA. The levels of IgG responses to Anopheles gSG6-P1 and Aedes Nterm-34kDa salivary peptides varied significantly across villages (all p<0.05). IgG responses to Anopheles gSG6-P1 were higher in Njombe compared to Belabo and Ouami (all p<0.01), while IgG responses to Aedes Nterm-34kDa were higher in Kekem compared to the other villages (all p<0.0001). Aweak correlation was observed between IgG responses to Anopheles and Aedes salivary peptides (Spearman r = 0.2689, p = 0.0003). However, the median level of IgG to Anopheles gSG6-P1 was higher than IgG to Aedes Nterm-34kDa in Njombé, Belabo, and Ouami. Individuals not using their LLIN, those using damaged bed nets, and those who reported vegetation around their houses developed higher IgG responses to gSG6-P1 and Nterm-34 kDa compared to those who did not (all p<0.05). The immune-epidemiological biomarkers have shown promising potential as indicators for monitoring human exposure to various mosquito bites and their heterogeneity in the same site. However, additional research is needed to validate the efficacy of this technique for surveillance purposes and to assess the effectiveness of vector control interventions.

Long-Lasting Insecticide-Treated Nets Combined or Not with Indoor Residual Spraying May Not Be Sufficient to Eliminate Malaria: A Case-Control Study, Benin, West Africa

In sub-Saharan Africa, despite the implementation of multiple control interventions, the prevalence of malaria infection and clinical cases remains high. The primary tool for vector control against malaria in this region is the use of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) combined or not with indoor residual spraying (IRS) to achieve a synergistic effect in protection. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of LLINs, with or without IRS, protected against Plasmodium falciparum infection and uncomplicated clinical cases (UCC) of malaria in Benin. A case-control study was conducted, encompassing all age groups, in the urban area of Djougou and the rural area of Cobly. A cross-sectional survey was conducted that included 2080 individuals in the urban area and 2770 individuals in the rural area. In the urban area, sleeping under LLINs did not confer significant protection against malaria infection and UCC when compared to no intervention. However, certain neighbourhoods benefited from a notable reduction in infection rates ranging from 65% to 85%. In the rural area, the use of LLINs alone, IRS alone, or their combination did not provide additional protection compared to no intervention. IRS alone and LLINs combined with IRS provided 61% and 65% protection against malaria infection, respectively, compared to LLINs alone. The effectiveness of IRS alone and LLINs combined with IRS against UCC was 52% and 54%, respectively, when compared to LLINs alone. In both urban and rural areas, the use of LLINs alone, IRS alone, and their combination did not demonstrate significant individual protection against malaria infection and clinical cases when compared to no intervention. In the conditions of this study, LLINs combined or not with IRS are not effective enough to eliminate malaria. In addition to the interventions, this study identified factors associated with malaria in Benin as housing design, neglected social groups like gender-marginalised individuals and adolescents, and socio-economic conditions acting as barriers to effective malaria prevention. Addressing these factors is crucial in order to facilitate malaria elimination efforts in sub-Saharan Africa.

Mosquito Salivary Proteins and Arbovirus Infection: From Viral Enhancers to Potential Targets for Vaccines

Arthropod-borne viruses present important public health challenges worldwide. Viruses such as DENV, ZIKV, and WNV are of current concern due to an increasing incidence and an expanding geographic range, generating explosive outbreaks even in non-endemic areas. The clinical signs associated with infection from these arboviruses are often inapparent, mild, or nonspecific, but occasionally develop into serious complications marked by rapid onset, tremors, paralysis, hemorrhagic fever, neurological alterations, or death. They are predominately transmitted to humans through mosquito bite, during which saliva is inoculated into the skin to facilitate blood feeding. A new approach to prevent arboviral diseases has been proposed by the observation that arthropod saliva facilitates transmission of pathogens. Viruses released within mosquito saliva may more easily initiate host invasion by taking advantage of the host's innate and adaptive immune responses to saliva. This provides a rationale for creating vaccines against mosquito salivary proteins, especially because of the lack of licensed vaccines against most of these viruses. This review aims to provide an overview of the effects on the host immune response by the mosquito salivary proteins and how these phenomena alter the infection outcome for different arboviruses, recent attempts to generate mosquito salivary-based vaccines against flavivirus including DENV, ZIKV, and WNV, and the potential benefits and pitfalls that this strategy involves.

Factors Associated With Human IgG Antibody Response to Anopheles albimanus Salivary Gland Extract, Artibonite Department, Haiti, 2017

Serological data can provide estimates of human exposure to both malaria vector and parasite based on antibody responses. A multiplex bead-based assay was developed to simultaneously detect IgG to Anopheles albimanus salivary gland extract (SGE) and 23 Plasmodium falciparum antigens among 4185 participants enrolled in Artibonite department, Haiti in 2017. Logistic regression adjusted for participant- and site-level covariates and found children under 5 years and 6-15 years old had 3.7- and 5.4-fold increase in odds, respectively, of high anti-SGE IgG compared to participants >15 years. Seropositivity to P. falciparum CSP, Rh2_2030, and SEA-1 antigens was significantly associated with high IgG response against SGE, and participant enrolment at elevations under 200 m was associated with higher anti-SGE IgG levels. The ability to approximate population exposure to malaria vectors through SGE serology data is very dependent by age categories, and SGE antigens can be easily integrated into a multiplex serological assay.

Building an integrated serosurveillance platform to inform public health interventions: Insights from an experts' meeting on serum biomarkers

The use of biomarkers to measure immune responses in serum is crucial for understanding population-level exposure and susceptibility to human pathogens. Advances in sample collection, multiplex testing, and computational modeling are transforming serosurveillance into a powerful tool for public health program design and response to infectious threats. In July 2018, 70 scientists from 16 countries met to perform a landscape analysis of approaches that support an integrated serosurveillance platform, including the consideration of issues for successful implementation. Here, we summarize the group's insights and proposed roadmap for implementation, including objectives, technical requirements, ethical issues, logistical considerations, and monitoring and evaluation.

Bayesian spatial modelling of malaria burden in two contrasted eco-epidemiological facies in Benin (West Africa): call for localized interventions

Background

Despite a global decrease in malaria burden worldwide, malaria remains a major public health concern, especially in Benin children, the most vulnerable group. A better understanding of malaria’s spatial and age-dependent characteristics can help provide durable disease control and elimination. This study aimed to analyze the spatial distribution of Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection and disease among children under five years of age in Benin, West Africa.

Methods

A cross-sectional epidemiological and clinical survey was conducted using parasitological examination and rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) in Benin. Interviews were done with 10,367 children from 72 villages across two health districts in Benin. The prevalence of infection and clinical cases was estimated according to age. A Bayesian spatial binomial model was used to estimate the prevalence of malaria infection, and clinical cases were adjusted for environmental and demographic covariates. It was implemented in R using Integrated Nested Laplace Approximations (INLA) and Stochastic Partial Differentiation Equations (SPDE) techniques.

Results

The prevalence of P. falciparum infection was moderate in the south (34.6%) of Benin and high in the northern region (77.5%). In the south, the prevalence of P. falciparum infection and clinical malaria cases were similar according to age. In northern Benin children under six months of age were less frequently infected than children aged 6–11, 12–23, 24–60 months, (p < 0.0001) and had the lowest risk of malaria cases compared to the other age groups (6–12), (13–23) and (24–60): OR = 3.66 [2.21–6.05], OR = 3.66 [2.21–6.04], and OR = 2.83 [1.77–4.54] respectively (p < 0.0001). Spatial model prediction showed more heterogeneity in the south than in the north but a higher risk of malaria infection and clinical cases in the north than in the south.

Conclusion

Integrated and periodic risk mapping of Plasmodium falciparum infection and clinical cases will make interventions more evidence-based by showing progress or a lack in malaria control.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-14032-9.

Anopheles salivary antigens as serological biomarkers of vector exposure and malaria transmission: A systematic review with multilevel modelling

Background

Entomological surveillance for malaria is inherently resource-intensive and produces crude population-level measures of vector exposure which are insensitive in low-transmission settings. Antibodies against Anopheles salivary proteins measured at the individual level may serve as proxy biomarkers for vector exposure and malaria transmission, but their relationship is yet to be quantified.

Methods

A systematic review of studies measuring antibodies against Anopheles salivary antigens (PROSPERO: CRD42020185449). Multilevel modelling (to account for multiple study-specific observations [level 1], nested within study [level 2], and study nested within country [level 3]) estimated associations between seroprevalence with Anopheles human biting rate (HBR) and malaria transmission measures.

Results

From 3981 studies identified in literature searches, 42 studies across 16 countries were included contributing 393 study-specific observations of anti-Anopheles salivary antibodies determined in 42,764 samples. A positive association between HBR (log transformed) and seroprevalence was found; overall a twofold (100% relative) increase in HBR was associated with a 23% increase in odds of seropositivity (OR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.37; p<0.001). The association between HBR and Anopheles salivary antibodies was strongest with concordant, rather than discordant, Anopheles species. Seroprevalence was also significantly positively associated with established epidemiological measures of malaria transmission: entomological inoculation rate, Plasmodium spp. prevalence, and malarial endemicity class.

Conclusions

Anopheles salivary antibody biomarkers can serve as a proxy measure for HBR and malaria transmission, and could monitor malaria receptivity of a population to sustain malaria transmission. Validation of Anopheles species-specific biomarkers is important given the global heterogeneity in the distribution of Anopheles species. Salivary biomarkers have the potential to transform surveillance by replacing impractical, inaccurate entomological investigations, especially in areas progressing towards malaria elimination.

Funding

Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust.

Operational Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Long-lasting Insecticidal Nets on Human-Vector Contact in an African Urban Malaria Context

Background

Malaria is still a major public health concern in Côte d’Ivoire despite mass distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) as a key preventive strategy. This study intended to evaluate the operational effectiveness of LLINs on the level of human-vector contact using 1 antibody-based biomarker of exposure to Anopheles in urban areas.

Methods

This cross-sectional study collected socio-demographic data and use of LLINs from 9 neighborhoods in the city of Bouaké (Côte d’Ivoire). Dry blood spots performed in children aged >6 months and adults were used to evaluate immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to the Anopheles gSG6-P1 salivary peptide.

Results

IgG response levels to the salivary peptide were significantly lower in individuals who declared having “always” (n = 270) slept under an LLIN compared with those who had “often” (n = 2087) and “never” (n = 88) slept under an LLIN (P < .0001). IgG response levels to gSG6-P1 between those who declared having “always” and “not always” slept under an LLIN varied according to neighborhood, socio-professional category, and age group.

Conclusions

The human IgG level to this gSG6-P1 salivary peptide could be a useful tool to evaluate the actual effectiveness of LLINs and help design behavioral change interventions that are crucial for sustaining universal coverage.

Stratifying malaria receptivity in Bangladesh using archived rapid diagnostic tests

Background

Surveillance of low-density infections and of exposure to vectors is crucial to understand where malaria elimination might be feasible, and where the risk of outbreaks is high. Archived rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), used by national malaria control and elimination programs for clinical diagnosis, present a valuable, yet rarely used resource for in-depth studies on malaria epidemiology.

Methods

1022 RDTs from two sub-Districts in Bangladesh (Alikadam and Kamalganj) were screened by qPCR for low-density Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections, and by ELISA for Anopheles salivary gland antibodies as a marker for exposure to vectors.

Results

Concordance between RDT and qPCR was moderate. qPCR detected 31/1022 infections compared to 36/1022 diagnosed by RDT. Exposure to Anopheles was significantly higher in Kamalganj despite low transmission, which could be explained by low bed net use.

Conclusions

Archived RDTs present a valuable source of antibodies for serological studies on exposure to vectors. In contrast, the benefit of screening archived RDTs to obtain a better estimate of clinical case numbers is moderate. Kamalganj could be prone to outbreaks.

Spatial Assessment of Contact Between Humans and Anopheles and Aedes Mosquitoes in a Medium-Sized African Urban Setting, Using Salivary Antibody-Based Biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Anarchic and poorly controlled urbanization led to an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases (MBD) in many African cities. Here, we evaluate the spatial heterogeneity of human exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors in an urban area of northern Senegal, using antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was undertaken during the rainy season of 2014 in 4 neighborhoods of Saint-Louis, a city in northern Senegal. Among children aged 6-59 months in each neighborhood, the dried blood spot technique was used to evaluate immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to both gSG6-P1 (Anopheles) and Nterm-34-kDa (Aedes) salivary peptides as validated biomarkers of respective mosquito bite exposure.

RESULTS

IgG response levels to gSG6-P1 and Nterm-34-kDa salivary peptides varied significantly between the 4 neighborhoods (P < .0001). The level of exposure to Aedes bites also varied according to household access to sanitation services (P = .027), whereas that of exposure to Anopheles bites varied according to insecticide-treated bed net use (P = .006). In addition, spatial clusters of high contact between humans and mosquitoes were identified inside 3 neighborhoods.

CONCLUSIONS

Antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites could be helpful tools for evaluating the heterogeneity of exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors by national control programs.

IgG antibody response against Anopheles salivary gland proteins in asymptomatic Plasmodium infections in Narino, Colombia

Background

The humoral immune response against Anopheles salivary glands proteins in the vertebrate host can reflect the intensity of exposure to Anopheles bites and the risk of Plasmodium infection. In Colombia, the identification of exposure biomarkers is necessary due to the several Anopheles species circulating. The purpose of this study was to evaluate risk of malaria infection by measuring antibody responses against salivary glands extracts from Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus and Anopheles (Nys.) darlingi and also against the gSG6-P1 peptide of Anopheles gambiae in people residing in a malaria endemic area in the Colombian Pacific coast.

Methods

Dried blood spots samples were eluted to measure the IgG antibodies against salivary gland extracts of An. albimanus strains STECLA (STE) and Cartagena (CTG) and An. darlingi and the gSG6-P1 peptide by ELISA in uninfected people and microscopic and submicroscopic Plasmodium carriers from the Colombia Pacific Coast. A multiple linear mixed regression model, Spearman correlation, and Mann–Whitney U-test were used to analyse IgG data.

Results

Significant differences in specific IgG levels were detected between infected and uninfected groups for salivary glands extracts from An. albimanus and for gSG6-P1, also IgG response to CTG and gSG6-P1 peptide were positively associated with the IgG response to Plasmodium falciparum in the mixed model.

Conclusion

The CTG and STE An. albimanus salivary glands extracts are a potential source of new Anopheles salivary biomarkers to identify exposure to the main malaria vector and to calculate risk of disease in the Colombian Pacific coast. Also, the gSG6-P1 peptide has the potential to quantify human exposure to the subgenus Anopheles vectors in the same area.

Biomarkers for Zoonotic Visceral Leishmaniasis in Latin America

In Latin America, zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) arising from infection by L. infantum is primarily transmitted by Lutzomyia longipalpis sand flies. Dogs, which are chronic reservoirs of L. infantum, are considered a significant risk factor for acquisition of ZVL due to their close proximity to humans. In addition, as a vector-borne disease the intensity of exposure to vector sand flies can also enhance the risk of developing ZVL. Traditionally, IFN-γ and IL-10 are considered as the two main cytokines which determine the outcome of visceral leishmaniasis. However, more recently, the literature has demonstrated that different mediators, such as lipid mediators (PGE-2, PGF-2 alfa, LTB-4, resolvins) and other important inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are also involved in the pathogenicity of ZVL. Analysis of a greater number of mediators allows for a more complete view of disease immunopathogenesis. Additionally, our knowledge has expanded to encompass different biomarkers associated to disease severity and healing after specific treatments. These parameters can also be used to better define new potential targets for vaccines and chemotherapy for ZVL. Here, we will provide an overview of ZVL biomarkers identified for both humans and dogs and discuss their merits and shortcomings. We will also discuss biomarkers of vector exposure as an additional tool in our arsenal to combat ZVL.