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Sharma I, Kataria P, Das J. Cerebral malaria pathogenesis: Dissecting the role of CD4 + and CD8 + T-cells as major effectors in disease pathology. Int Rev Immunol 2024; 43:309-325. [PMID: 38618863 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2024.2336539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Cerebral malaria (CM) is a severe complication of Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) infection, with complex pathogenesis involving multiple factors, including the host's immunological response. T lymphocytes, specifically CD4+ T helper cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, are crucial in controlling parasite growth and activating cells for parasite clearance via cytokine secretion. Contrary to this, reports also suggest the pathogenic nature of T lymphocytes as they are often involved in disease progression and severity. CD8+ cytotoxic T cells migrate to the host's brain vasculature, disrupting the blood-brain barrier and causing neurological manifestations. CD4+ T helper cells on the other hand play a variety of functions as they differentiate into different subtypes which may function as pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory. The excessive pro-inflammatory response in CM can lead to multi-organ failure, necessitating a check mechanism to maintain immune homeostasis. This is achieved by regulatory T cells and their characteristic cytokines, which counterbalance the pro-inflammatory immune response. Maintaining a critical balance between pro and anti-inflammatory responses is crucial for determining disease outcomes in CM. A slight change in this balance may contribute to a disease severity owing to an extreme inflammatory response or unrestricted parasite growth, a potential target for designing immunotherapeutic treatment approaches. The review briefly discusses the pathogenesis of CM and various mechanisms responsible for the disruption of the blood-brain barrier. It also highlights the role of different T cell subsets during infection and emphasizes the importance of balance between pro and anti-inflammatory T cells that ultimately decides the outcome of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indu Sharma
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Noida, India
- Division of Immunology, National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Poonam Kataria
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Noida, India
- Division of Immunology, National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
| | - Jyoti Das
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Noida, India
- Division of Immunology, National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
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Wang TY, Chen KY, Jhan KY, Li CH, Jung SM, Wang LC. Temporal-spatial expressions of interleukin-4, interleukin-10, and interleukin-13 in the brains of C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice infected with Angiostrongylus cantonensis: An immunohistochemical study. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2018; 53:592-603. [PMID: 30600200 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2018.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Angiostrongylus cantonensis is an important etiologic agent of eosinophilic meningitis and/or eosinophilic meningoencephalitis in humans. Th2 responses have been considered to be predominant in non-permissive hosts. However, changes of cytokines in the central nervous system of the host remain unclear. The present study was conducted to determine the temporal-spatial expressions of IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 in the brains of infected C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice by immunohistochemistry. METHODS After infecting each mouse with 25 third-stage larvae (L3), brain specimens were collected on day 7 and day 28 post-infection. Each specimen was cut into five sections and stained with corresponding antibodies of the three cytokines. RESULTS In infected C57BL/6 mice, high IL-4 expressions were found in the isocortex, IL-10 in the isocortex, olfactory area, hippocampus, cerebral nuclei, hypothalamus, cerebellum nuclei, and medulla, and IL-13 in the isocortex and cerebellum. In infected BALB/c mice, IL-4 and IL-10 were highly expressed in the isocortex, olfactory areas, cerebral nuclei, hypothalamus, and cerebellum nuclei and IL-13 in the thalamus and hypothalamus. High levels of the cytokines were usually detected in on day 7 in BALB/c mice and day 28 in C57BL/6 mice. CONCLUSION The special temporal-spatial expression changes of these three cytokines in the infected mouse brain may explain the differences in the survival and the time of occurrence of immune responses in the hosts after A. cantonensis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yi Wang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Kuang-Yao Chen
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Yuan Jhan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Han Li
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ming Jung
- Department of Pathology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung Children Hospital at Linkou and Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
| | - Lian-Chen Wang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
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Lombardini ED, Gettayacamin M, Turner GDH, Brown AE. A Review of Plasmodium coatneyi-Macaque Models of Severe Malaria. Vet Pathol 2015; 52:998-1011. [PMID: 26077782 DOI: 10.1177/0300985815583098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the most significant public health concerns in the world today. Approximately half the human population is at risk for infection, with children and pregnant women being most vulnerable. More than 90% of the total human malaria burden, which numbers in excess of 200 million annually, is due to Plasmodium falciparum. Lack of an effective vaccine and a dwindling stockpile of antimalarial drugs due to increased plasmodial resistance underscore the critical need for valid animal models. Plasmodium coatneyi was described in Southeast Asia 50 years ago. This plasmodium of nonhuman primates has been used sporadically as a model for severe malaria, as it mimics many of the pathophysiologic features of human disease. This review covers the reported macroscopic, microscopic, ultrastructural, and molecular pathology of P. coatneyi infection in macaques, specifically focusing on the rhesus macaque, as well as describing the critical needs still outstanding in the validation of this crucial model of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Lombardini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - M Gettayacamin
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - G D H Turner
- Mahidol Oxford Clinical Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - A E Brown
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
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Polimeni M, Prato M. Host matrix metalloproteinases in cerebral malaria: new kids on the block against blood-brain barrier integrity? Fluids Barriers CNS 2014; 11:1. [PMID: 24467887 PMCID: PMC3905658 DOI: 10.1186/2045-8118-11-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral malaria (CM) is a life-threatening complication of falciparum malaria, associated with high mortality rates, as well as neurological impairment in surviving patients. Despite disease severity, the etiology of CM remains elusive. Interestingly, although the Plasmodium parasite is sequestered in cerebral microvessels, it does not enter the brain parenchyma: so how does Plasmodium induce neuronal dysfunction? Several independent research groups have suggested a mechanism in which increased blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability might allow toxic molecules from the parasite or the host to enter the brain. However, the reported severity of BBB damage in CM is variable depending on the model system, ranging from mild impairment to full BBB breakdown. Moreover, the factors responsible for increased BBB permeability are still unknown. Here we review the prevailing theories on CM pathophysiology and discuss new evidence from animal and human CM models implicating BBB damage. Finally, we will review the newly-described role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and BBB integrity. MMPs comprise a family of proteolytic enzymes involved in modulating inflammatory response, disrupting tight junctions, and degrading sub-endothelial basal lamina. As such, MMPs represent potential innovative drug targets for CM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mauro Prato
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università di Torino, C,so Raffaello 30, 10125 Torino, Italy.
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Gay F, Zougbédé S, N’Dilimabaka N, Rebollo A, Mazier D, Moreno A. Cerebral malaria: What is known and what is on research. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2012; 168:239-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2012.01.582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 01/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Sam-Agudu NA, Greene JA, Opoka RO, Kazura JW, Boivin MJ, Zimmerman PA, Riedesel MA, Bergemann TL, Schimmenti LA, John CC. TLR9 polymorphisms are associated with altered IFN-gamma levels in children with cerebral malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2010; 82:548-55. [PMID: 20348497 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR) polymorphisms have been associated with disease severity in malaria infection, but mechanisms for this association have not been characterized. The TLR2, 4, and 9 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies and serum interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) levels were assessed in Ugandan children with cerebral malaria (CM, N = 65) and uncomplicated malaria (UM, N = 52). The TLR9 C allele at -1237 and G allele at 1174 were strongly linked, and among children with CM, those with the C allele at -1237 or the G allele at 1174 had higher levels of IFN-gamma than those without these alleles (P = 0.03 and 0.008, respectively). The TLR9 SNPs were not associated with altered IFN-gamma levels in children with UM or altered TNF-alpha levels in either group. We present the first human data that TLR SNPs are associated with altered cytokine production in parasitic infection.
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White NJ, Turner GDH, Medana IM, Dondorp AM, Day NPJ. The murine cerebral malaria phenomenon. Trends Parasitol 2009; 26:11-5. [PMID: 19932638 PMCID: PMC2807032 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 03/09/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
P.berghei ANKA infection in CBA or CB57BL/6 mice is used widely as a murine ‘model’ of human cerebral malaria (HCM), despite markedly different histopathological features. The pathology of the murine model is characterised by marked inflammation with little or no intracerebral sequestration of parasitised erythrocytes, whereas HCM is associated with intense intracerebral sequestration, often with little inflammatory response. There are now more than ten times as many studies each year of the murine model than on HCM. Of 48 adjunctive interventions evaluated in the murine model, 44 (92%) were successful, compared with only 1 (6%) of 17 evaluated in HCM during the same period. The value of the mouse model in identifying pathological processes or therapeutic interventions in human cerebral malaria is questionable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J White
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Koehler JW, Bolton M, Rollins A, Snook K, deHaro E, Henson E, Rogers L, Martin LN, Krogstad DJ, James MA, Rice J, Davison B, Veazey RS, Prabhu R, Amedee AM, Garry RF, Cogswell FB. Altered immune responses in rhesus macaques co-infected with SIV and Plasmodium cynomolgi: an animal model for coincident AIDS and relapsing malaria. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7139. [PMID: 19774084 PMCID: PMC2744481 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dual epidemics of the malaria parasite Plasmodium and HIV-1 in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia present a significant risk for co-infection in these overlapping endemic regions. Recent studies of HIV/Plasmodium falciparum co-infection have reported significant interactions of these pathogens, including more rapid CD4+ T cell loss, increased viral load, increased immunosuppression, and increased episodes of clinical malaria. Here, we describe a novel rhesus macaque model for co-infection that supports and expands upon findings in human co-infection studies and can be used to identify interactions between these two pathogens. Methodology/Principal Findings Five rhesus macaques were infected with P. cynomolgi and, following three parasite relapses, with SIV. Compared to macaques infected with SIV alone, co-infected animals had, as a group, decreased survival time and more rapid declines in markers for SIV progression, including peripheral CD4+ T cells and CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratios. The naïve CD4+ T cell pool of the co-infected animals was depleted more rapidly than animals infected with SIV alone. The co-infected animals also failed to generate proliferative responses to parasitemia by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as well as B cells while also having a less robust anti-parasite and altered anti-SIV antibody response. Conclusions/Significance These data suggest that infection with both SIV and Plasmodium enhances SIV-induced disease progression and impairs the anti-Plasmodium immune response. These data support findings in HIV/Plasmodium co-infection studies. This animal model can be used to further define impacts of lentivirus and Plasmodium co-infection and guide public health and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Koehler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America.
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Toklu HZ, Uysal MK, Kabasakal L, Sirvanci S, Ercan F, Kaya M. The effects of riluzole on neurological, brain biochemical, and histological changes in early and late term of sepsis in rats. J Surg Res 2008; 152:238-48. [PMID: 18718604 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2008.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2007] [Revised: 02/04/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE One of the underlying mechanisms of sepsis is thought to be the oxidative damage due to the generation of free radicals. Glutamate, the major excitatory amino acid in the brain, is known to play an important role in blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, brain edema, and oxidative damage in pathological conditions. Riluzole, a glutamate release inhibitor, has been shown to have neuroprotective effects in several animal models. The aim of our study was to investigate the putative protective effect of riluzole against sepsis-induced brain injury. METHODS Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture in Wistar albino rats. Sham operated (control) and sepsis groups received either saline or riluzole (6 mg/kg, s.c.) 30 min after the surgical procedure, and every 12 h as continuing treatment. The effect of riluzole on the survival rate, weight loss, fever, leukocyte count, brain edema, BBB permeability, oxidative damage, and histological observations were evaluated for early (6 h) and late (48 h) phase of sepsis. RESULTS Riluzole, when administered 6 mg/kg s.c., diminishes the sepsis-induced augmentation in weight loss, body temperature, brain edema, increase in BBB permeability, oxidative damage, and brain injury that is observed histologically. Besides increasing the survival rate in sepsis, it has also improved neurological examination scores and the prognosis of the disease. CONCLUSION According to the results of this study, riluzole appears to have a protective effect for sepsis-induced encephalopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hale Z Toklu
- Department of Pharmacology, Marmara University School of Pharmacy, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Armah H, Wiredu EK, Dodoo AK, Adjei AA, Tettey Y, Gyasi R. Cytokines and adhesion molecules expression in the brain in human cerebral malaria. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2006; 2:123-31. [PMID: 16705810 PMCID: PMC3814706 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph2005010123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Although the role of systemic proinflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and TNF-α, and their up-regulation of adhesion molecules, ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-Selectin, in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria (CM) is well established, the role of local cytokine release remain unclear. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to compare the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-Selectin, IL-1β, TNF-α and TGF- β at light microscopic level in cerebral, cerebellar and brainstem postmortem cryostat sections from 10 CM, 5 severe malarial anemia (SMA), 1 purulent bacterial meningitis (PBM), 2 non-central nervous system infections (NCNSI) and 3 non-infections (NI) deaths in Ghanaian children. Fatal malaria and Salmonella sepsis showed significantly higher vascular expression of all 3 adhesion molecules, with highly significant co-localization with sequestration in the malaria cases. However, there was negligible difference between CM and SMA. TGF-β showed intravascular and perivascular distribution in all cases, but expression was most intense in the PBM case and CM group. TNF-α and IL-1β showed prominent brain parenchymal staining, in addition to intravascular and perivascular staining, in only the PBM case and CM group. The maximal expression of all 6 antigens studied was in the cerebellar sections of the malaria cases. Endothelial activation is a feature of fatal malaria and Salmonella sepsis, with adhesion molecule expression being highly correlated with sequestration. IL-1β and TNF-α are upregulated in only cases with neurodegenerative lesions, whilst TGF-β is present in all cases. Both cytokines and adhesion molecules were maximally upregulated in the cerebellar sections of the malaria cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Armah
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
| | - Edwin Kwame Wiredu
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health Sciences, Accra, Ghana
- Correspondence to Prof. Edwin Kwame Wiredu.
| | - Alfred Kofi Dodoo
- Histology & Electron Microscopy Unit, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana College of Health Sciences, Accra, Ghana
| | - Andrew Anthony Adjei
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School of Allied Health Sciences, Accra, Ghana
| | - Yao Tettey
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
| | - Richard Gyasi
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
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Armah H, Dodoo AK, Wiredu EK, Stiles JK, Adjei AA, Gyasi RK, Tettey Y. High-level cerebellar expression of cytokines and adhesion molecules in fatal, paediatric, cerebral malaria. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2006; 99:629-47. [PMID: 16212798 DOI: 10.1179/136485905x51508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Although the roles played by systemic tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta), and their upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and E-selectin, in the pathogenesis of human cerebral malaria (CM) are well established, the role of local cytokine release, in the brain, remains unclear. Immunohistochemistry was therefore used to compare the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, IL-1beta, TNF and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) at light-microscope level, in cryostat sections of cerebral, cerebellar and brainstem tissues collected, post-mortem, from Ghanaian children. Among the 21 children investigated were 10 cases of CM, five of severe malarial anemia (SMA), one of purulent bacterial meningitis (PBM), two of non-central-nervous-system infection (NCNSI) and three children who had no infection (NI) when they died. Parasitised erythrocytes were detected in all of the sections from the cases of fatal malaria (CM and SMA), and sequestered leucocytes were present in most of the sections from the CM cases (but none of the sections from the SMA cases). Significantly elevated vascular expression of all three adhesion molecules investigated was detected in the brains of the 15 cases of fatal malaria and one of the cases of NCNSI (a child with Salmonella septicaemia), and in the malaria cases this showed highly significant co-localization with the areas of erythrocyte sequestration. In terms of the levels of expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin, there were, however, negligible differences between the CM and SMA cases. Although TGF-beta showed intravascular and perivascular distribution in all the subjects, its expression was most intense in the PBM case and the CM group. Only in the sections from the PBM and CM cases did TNF and IL-1beta show prominent brain parenchymal staining, in addition to the intravascular and perivascular staining seen in all subjects. The highest observed expression of each of the six antigens studied was in the cerebellar sections of the malaria cases. Endothelial activation in the brain therefore appears to be a feature of fatal malaria and Salmonella sepsis, and in cases of fatal malaria is closely associated with leucocyte sequestration. In the present study, IL-1beta and TNF were only up-regulated in the brains of children with neurodegenerative lesions, whereas TGF-beta was present in all cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Armah
- Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, P.O. Box 4236, Accra, Ghana.
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12
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Coisne C, Faveeuw C, Delplace Y, Dehouck L, Miller F, Cecchelli R, Dehouck B. Differential expression of selectins by mouse brain capillary endothelial cells in vitro in response to distinct inflammatory stimuli. Neurosci Lett 2005; 392:216-20. [PMID: 16214291 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Revised: 08/19/2005] [Accepted: 09/09/2005] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Increased lymphocyte trafficking across blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a prominent and early event in inflammatory and immune-mediated CNS diseases. The adhesion molecules that control the entry of leukocytes into the brain have not been fully elucidated. Although the role of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 has been well documented, the expression and role of selectins is still a matter of controversy. In a mouse syngenic in vitro BBB model, highly relevant for examining immunological events, mouse brain capillary endothelial cells (MBCECs) do not express selectins. Treatment of MBCECs with LPS, induced E- and P-selectin expression, whereas TNF-alpha or IFN-gamma treatments did not. Finally, P-selectin but not E-selectin expression was induced in IL-1beta treated MBCECs. Thus, our study suggests that diverse inflammatory stimuli could differentially regulate selectin expression at the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Coisne
- EA 2465-Université d'Artois, Faculté des Sciences Jean Perrin, 62307 Lens, France
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Sullivan JS, Bounngaseng A, Stewart A, Sullivan JJ, Galland GG, Fleetwood H, William EC. Infection of Saimiri boliviensis monkeys with Plasmodium coatneyi. J Parasitol 2005; 91:479-81. [PMID: 15986634 DOI: 10.1645/ge-3461rn] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abundant, apparently normally developing, liver-stage parasites of Plasmodium coatneyi were demonstrated following injection of sporozoites dissected from the salivary glands of Anopheles dirus mosquitoes. Erythrocytic development was not demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn S Sullivan
- Division of Parasitic and Scientific Resources Program, National Center for Infectious Disease, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Scinicariello F, Engleman CN, Jayashankar L, McClure HM, Attanasio R. Rhesus macaque antibody molecules: sequences and heterogeneity of alpha and gamma constant regions. Immunology 2004; 111:66-74. [PMID: 14678200 PMCID: PMC1782391 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01767.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are extensively used in vaccine development. Macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV) or simian-human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIV) are the best animal model currently available for acquired-immune-deficiency-syndrome-related studies. Recent results emphasize the importance of antibody responses in controlling HIV and SIV infection. Despite the increasing attention placed on humoral immunity in these models, very limited information is available on rhesus macaque antibody molecules. Therefore, we sequenced, cloned and characterized immunoglobulin gamma (IGHG) and alpha (IGHA) chain constant region genes from rhesus macaques of Indian and Chinese origin. Although it is currently thought that rhesus macaques express three IgG subclasses, we identified four IGHG genes, which were designated IGHG1, IGHG2, IGHG3 and IGHG4 on the basis of sequence similarities with the four human genes encoding the IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4 subclasses. The four genes were expressed at least at the messenger RNA level, as demonstrated by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The level of intraspecies heterogeneity was very high for IGHA genes, whereas IGHG genes were remarkably similar in all animals examined. However, single amino acid substitutions were present in IGHG2 and IGHG4 genes, indicating the presence of IgG polymorphism possibly resulting in the expression of different allotypes. Two IgA alleles were identified in several animals and RT-PCR showed that both alleles may be expressed. Presence of immunoglobulin gene polymorphism appears to reflect the unusually high levels of intraspecies heterogeneity already demonstrated for major histocompatibility complex genes in this non-human primate species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Harold M McClure
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory UniversityAtlanta, GA, USA
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Artavanis-Tsakonas K, Tongren JE, Riley EM. The war between the malaria parasite and the immune system: immunity, immunoregulation and immunopathology. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 133:145-52. [PMID: 12869017 PMCID: PMC1808775 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02174.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout history malaria has proved to be a significant threat to human health. Between 300 and 500 million clinical cases occur each year worldwide, approximately 2 million of which are fatal, primarily in children. The vast majority of malaria-related deaths are due to infection with Plasmodium falciparum; P. vivax causes severe febrile illness but is rarely fatal. Following repeated exposure to infection, people living in malaria endemic areas gradually acquire mechanisms to limit the inflammatory response to the parasite that causes the acute febrile symptoms (clinical immunity) as well as mechanisms to kill parasites or inhibit parasite replication (antiparasite immunity). Children, who have yet to develop protective immune mechanisms are thus at greater risk of clinical malaria, severe disease and death than adults. However, two epidemiological observations indicate that this is, perhaps, an oversimplified model. Firstly, cerebral malaria - a common manifestation of severe malaria - typically occurs in children who have already acquired a significant degree of antimalarial immunity, as evidenced by lower mean parasite densities and resistance to severe anaemia. One potential explanation is that cerebral malaria is, in part, an immune-mediated disease in which immunological priming occurs during first infection, eventually leading to immunopathology on re-infection. Secondly, among travelers from nonendemic areas, severe malaria is more common - and death rates are higher - in adults than in children. If severe malaria is an immune-mediated disease, what might be priming the immune system of adults from nonendemic areas to cause immunopathology during their first malaria infection, and how do adults from endemic areas avoid severe immunopathology? In this review we consider the role of innate and adaptive immune responses in terms of (i) protection from clinical malaria (ii) their potential role in immunopathology and (iii) the subsequent development of clinical immunity. We conclude by proposing a model of antimalarial immunity which integrates both the immunological and epidemiological data collected to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Artavanis-Tsakonas
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Das UN, Ramos EJB, Meguid MM. Metabolic alterations during inflammation and its modulation by central actions of omega-3 fatty acids. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003; 6:413-9. [PMID: 12806215 DOI: 10.1097/01.mco.0000078981.18774.5e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To discuss the possible relationship between long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, cytokines, anandamides, nitric oxide, leptin, various neurotransmitters in the brain, and their role in anorexia of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions and cancer. RECENT FINDINGS Recent studies have shown that long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially the omega-3 series, have antiinflammatory actions, increase the concentrations of anandamides, enhance the levels of acetylcholine and nitric oxide and modulate the concentrations and actions of various neurotransmitters, including leptin, in the brain. Patients suffering from acute and chronic inflammatory conditions have low tissue concentrations of various long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and high levels of proinflammatory cytokines that can cause anorexia and decrease food intake. SUMMARY It is suggested that supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids may have a role in the prevention and treatment of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, improving anorexia associated with these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Undurti N Das
- EFA Sciences LLC, Norwood, Massachusetts 02062, USA.
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Bauer PR, Van Der Heyde HC, Sun G, Specian RD, Granger DN. Regulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression in an experimental model of cerebral malaria. Microcirculation 2002; 9:463-70. [PMID: 12483543 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mn.7800159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2002] [Accepted: 07/12/2002] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Plasmodium falciparum malaria in humans and animal models of this disease have revealed changes in the infected host that are consistent with a systemic inflammatory response. Although it has been proposed that endothelial cell adhesion molecules (CAM) contribute to the adhesive interactions of Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes and immune cells with vascular endothelial cells, ECAM expression has not been systematically studied in Plasmodium-infected animals. METHODS In this study, the dual radiolabeled monoclonal antibody method was used to quantify the expression of different ECAMs (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, P-selectin, E-selectin) in different regional vascular beds of Plasmodium berghei ANKA-inffected mice (PbA), a well-recognized model of human cerebral malaria. The roles of T lymphocytes and certain cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-12, IFN-gamma) in mediating the infection-induced expression of ICAM-1 and P-selectin were assessed by using relevant mutant mice. RESULTS Wild-type (WT) mice exhibited highly significant increases in the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and P-selectin (but not E-selectin) in all vascular beds on the 6th day of PbA infection. The PbA-induced upregulation of ICAM-1 was significantly blunted in mice that were either deficient in IFN-alpha, IL-12 (but not TNF1b) or T lymphocytes (Rag-1 deficiency); however, these responses were tissue specific. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that vascular endothelial cells in most regional circulations assume an inflammatory phenotype and that cytokines and immune cells mediate this response in a tissue-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillipe R Bauer
- Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA 71130-3932, USA
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Angulo I, Fresno M. Cytokines in the pathogenesis of and protection against malaria. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2002; 9:1145-52. [PMID: 12414742 PMCID: PMC130117 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.9.6.1145-1152.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Iñigo Angulo
- GlaxoSmithKline GSK, Tres Cantos Centro de Biología Molecular, CSIC-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Pachner AR, Dail D, Narayan K, Dutta K, Cadavid D. Increased expression of B-lymphocyte chemoattractant, but not pro-inflammatory cytokines, in muscle tissue in rhesus chronic Lyme borreliosis. Cytokine 2002; 19:297-307. [PMID: 12421572 DOI: 10.1006/cyto.2002.1973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation in skeletal muscle is a consistent feature of Lyme borreliosis, both in the human disease and experimental models. This study had two goals: to evaluate the expression of selected pro-inflammatory and chemokine genes in skeletal muscle in the Rhesus model of Lyme disease, and to identify unexpected cytokine genes involved in Lyme myositis. Two different techniques for measuring cytokine messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were used to achieve these goals: gene expression microarrays and. real-time RT-PCR (Taqman). Muscle from necropsies and biopsies were used, and were obtained from both infected and uninfected non-human primates (NHPs). Although many cytokines were found expressed in muscle tissue, pro-inflammatory cytokines commonly associated with inflammation were not consistently upregulated in infected muscles relative to uninfected muscles. However, B-lymphocyte chemoattractant (BLC), a chemokine implicated in the trafficking of B-cells into tissue, was increased in expression. This study is the first to extensively characterize cytokine gene expression in chronically inflamed tissue in Lyme borreliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Pachner
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey--New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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de Souza JB, Riley EM. Cerebral malaria: the contribution of studies in animal models to our understanding of immunopathogenesis. Microbes Infect 2002; 4:291-300. [PMID: 11909739 DOI: 10.1016/s1286-4579(02)01541-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral malaria is a serious and often fatal complication of Plasmodium falciparum infections. The precise mechanisms involved in the onset of neuropathology remain unknown, but parasite sequestration in the brain, metabolic disturbances and host immune responses are all thought to be involved. This review outlines the current state of knowledge of cerebral disease in humans, and discusses the contribution of studies of animal models to elucidation of the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Brian de Souza
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Pathology, Windeyer Institute of Medical Sciences, Royal Free and University College London Medical School, 46 Cleveland Street, London W1T 4JF, UK.
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