Impact of glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides on phyllospheric Methylobacterium

Symbiotic Methylobacterium comprise a significant portion of the phyllospheric microbiome, and are known to benefit host plant growth, development, and confer tolerance to stress factors. The near ubiquitous use of the broad-spectrum herbicide, glyphosate, in farming operations globally has necessitated a more expansive evaluation of the impacts of the agent itself and formulations containing glyphosate on important components of the plant phyllosphere, including Methylobacterium.This study provides an investigation of the sensitivity of 18 strains of Methylobacterium to glyphosate and two commercially available glyphosate-based herbicides (GBH). Nearly all strains of Methylobacterium showed signs of sensitivity to the popular GBH formulations WeatherMax® and Transorb® in a modified Kirby Bauer experiment. However, exposure to pure forms of glyphosate did not show a significant effect on growth for any strain in both the Kirby Bauer test and in liquid broth, until polysorbate-20 (Tween20) was added as a surfactant. Artificially increasing membrane permeability through the introduction of polysorbate-20 caused a 78-84% reduction in bacterial cell biomass relative to controls containing glyphosate or high levels of surfactant only (0-9% and 6-37% reduction respectively). Concentrations of glyphosate as low as 0.05% w/v (500 µg/L) from both commercial formulations tested, inhibited the culturability of Methylobacterium on fresh nutrient-rich medium.To better understand the compatibility of important phyllospheric bacteria with commercial glyphosate-based herbicides, this study endeavours to characterize sensitivity in multiple strains of Methylobacterium, and explore possible mechanisms by which toxicity may be induced.

Printable-Microencapsulated Ascorbic Acid for Personalized Topical Delivery

This study presents the successful development of printable-microencapsulated ascorbic acid (AA) for personalized topical delivery using laser printing technology. Rice flour with a 10% AA content was selected as an encapsulation material. Hydrophobic nanosilica was used to create negative electrostatic charges on the microencapsulated surfaces via a high-speed mixture. This process facilitated the microencapsulated AA fabrication using a commercial laser printer and produced a well-patterned design with some minor print defects, such as banding and scattering. The amount of encapsulated AA per area was 0.28 mg/cm2, and the RGB color code was 0,0,0. An emulsion carrier system comprising pentylene glycol (P5G) or diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (DEGEE), Tween 20, oleic acid, and deionized (DI) water at a ratio of 20:30:30:20 was developed to enhance AA transmission into the skin. The Franz diffusion cell technique was used to investigate topical absorption on Strat-M membranes using P5G and DEGEE as enhancers. The steady-state fluxes were 8.40 (±0.64) and 10.04 (±0.58) μg/h/cm2 for P5G and DEGEE, respectively. Cytotoxicity tests conducted on fibroblast cells revealed low cytotoxicity for the encapsulation products and carriers.

Statistically Optimized Polymeric Buccal Films of Eletriptan Hydrobromide and Itopride Hydrochloride: An In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Study

A migraine is a condition of severe headaches, causing a disturbance in the daily life of the patient. The current studies were designed to develop immediate-release polymeric buccal films of Eletriptan Hydrobromide (EHBR) and Itopride Hydrochloride (ITHC) to improve their bioavailability and, hence, improve compliance with the patients of migraines and its associated symptoms. The prepared films were evaluated for various in vitro parameters, including surface morphology, mechanical strength, disintegration test (DT), total dissolving time (TDT), drug release and drug permeation, etc., and in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters, such as area under curve (AUC), mean residence time (MRT), half-life (t1/2), time to reach maximum concentration (Tmax), and time to reach maximum concentration (Cmax). The outcomes have indicated the successful preparation of the films, as SEM has confirmed the smooth surface and uniform distribution of drugs throughout the polymer matrix. The films were found to be mechanically stable as indicated by folding endurance studies. Furthermore, the optimized formulations showed a DT of 13 ± 1 s and TDT of 42.6 ± 0.75 s, indicating prompt disintegration as well as the dissolution of the films. Albino rabbits were used for in vivo pharmacokinetics, and the outcomes were evident of improved pharmacokinetics. The drug was found to rapidly permeate across the buccal mucosa, leading to increased bioavailability of the drug: Cmax of 130 and 119 ng/mL of ITHC and EHBR, respectively, as compared to 96 (ITHC) and 90 ng/mL (EHBR) of oral solution. The conclusion can be drawn that possible reasons for the enhanced bioavailability could be the increased surface area in the form of buccal films, its rapid disintegration, and faster dissolution, which led toward the rapid absorption of the drug into the blood stream.

Chitosan/Solid-Lipid Nanoparticles Hybrid Gels for Vaginal Delivery of Estradiol for Management of Vaginal Menopausal Symptoms

Hormonal replacement therapy is the mainstay treatment to improve quality of life and reduce mortality. With the increasing number of young women with early menopause, women now live longer (increased life expectancy). However, poor patient compliance with oral estrogen therapy has emerged. Intravaginal estrogen therapy can provide significant benefits with minimal risk for postmenopausal women with symptoms of the lower urinary tract and vaginal area but who do not want to take oral estrogen. In this study, estradiol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLPs) were prepared from compritol ATO 888 and precirol ATO 5, and two different stabilizers (Pluronic F127 and Tween 80) were studied. Selected SLPs (F3 and F6) were coated with different concentrations of the mucoadhesive and sustained-release polymer chitosan. Furthermore, gelation time, viscosity, mucoadhesion, ex vivo permeation, and in vitro irritation for vaginal irritation were studied. Particle sizes ranged between 450-850 nm, and EE% recorded 50-83% for the six SLPs depending on the type and amount of lipids used. Cumulative % drug release was significantly enhanced and was recorded at 51% to 83%, compared to that (less than 20%) for the control suspension of estradiol. Furthermore, extensive thermal gelation and mucoadhesion were recorded for chitosan-coated SLPs. Up to 2.2-fold increases in the permeation parameters for SLPs gels compared to the control suspension gel were recorded, revealing a slight to moderate irritation on Hela cell lines. These findings demonstrated chitosan-coated estradiol SLPs as novel and promising vaginal mucoadhesive hybrid nanogels.

Statistically Optimized Tacrolimus and Thymoquinone Co-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Gel for Improved Topical Treatment of Psoriasis

The aim of this investigation was to develop and analyze a tacrolimus and thymoquinone co-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (TAC-THQ-NLCs)-based nanogel as a new combinatorial approach for the treatment of psoriasis. The NLCs were formulated by an emulsification-solvent-evaporation technique using glyceryl monostearate, Capryol 90 (oil), and a mixture of Tween 80 and Span 20 as a solid lipid, liquid lipid, and surfactant, respectively. Their combination was optimized using a three-factor and three-level Box-Behnken design (3³-BBD). The optimized TAC-THQ-NLCs were observed to be smooth and spherical with a particle size of 144.95 ± 2.80 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.160 ± 0.021, a zeta potential of -29.47 ± 1.9 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of >70% for both drugs. DSC and PXRD studies demonstrated the amorphous state of TAC and THQ in the lipid matrix of the NLCs. An FTIR analysis demonstrated the excellent compatibility of the drugs with the excipients without interactions. The TAC-THQ-NLC-based nanogel (abbreviated as TAC-THQ-NG) exhibited a good texture profile and good spreadability. The in vitro release study demonstrated a sustained drug release for 24 h from the TAC-THQ-NG that followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model with a Fickian diffusion mechanism. Moreover, the TAC-THQ-NG revealed significantly higher dose-dependent toxicity against an HaCaT cell line compared to a TAC-THQ suspension gel (abbreviated as TAC-THQ-SG). Furthermore, the developed formulations demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable to free THQ. Confocal microscopy revealed improved permeation depth of the dye-loaded nanogel in the skin compared to the suspension gel. Based on these findings, it was concluded that TAC-THQ-NG is a promising combinatorial treatment approach for psoriasis.

Quality-by-design based fabrication of febuxostat-loaded nanoemulsion: Statistical optimization, characterizations, permeability, and bioavailability studies

The present work deals with QbD-based development of FEB-loaded nanoemulsion (FEB-NE) in order to enhance bioavailability and permeability. In the beginning, the risk assessment was performed on different experimental variables using the Ishikawa diagram followed by FMEA study in order to find critical process parameter (CPP) and critical material attributes (CMAs). To build quality in nanoemulsion, the quality target product profiles (QTPP) and critical quality attributes (CQAs) were determined. The different batches of FEB-NE were produced by the microemulsification-probe sonication method. Effect of varying levels of independent variables such as oil concentration (X₁), S_mix concentration (X₃), and amplitude (X₃) on responses such as globule size (Y₁), zeta potential (Y₂), and entrapment efficiency (Y₃) were studied using Box-Behnken design (BDD). FEB-NE formulation was optimized using a graphical and numerical method. The optimized formulation concentrations and their responses (CQAs) were located as design space in an overlay plot. The spherical shapes of globules were visualized by surface morphology using AFM and TEM. In vitro dissolution study showed 93.32% drug release from the optimized FEB-NE formulation. The drug release mechanism followed by the formulation was the Higuchi-matrix kinetics with a regression coefficient of 0.9236 (R²). FEB-NE showed enhanced permeability using PAMPA (artificial non-cell membrane) and everted gut sac model method. The developed optimized FEB-NE exhibited the enhancement of bioavailability by 2.48 fold as compared to FEB-suspension using Wistar rats suggesting improvement of solubility of a lipophilic drug. The optimized batch remained stable for 90 days at 4 °C and 25 °C. Thus, QbD-based development of FEB-NE can be useful for a better perspective on a commercial scale.

Status and Future Scope of Soft Nanoparticles-Based Hydrogel in Wound Healing

Wounds are alterations in skin integrity resulting from any type of trauma. The healing process is complex, involving inflammation and reactive oxygen species formation. Therapeutic approaches for the wound healing process are diverse, associating dressings and topical pharmacological agents with antiseptics, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial actions. Effective treatment must maintain occlusion and moisture in the wound site, suitable capacity for the absorption of exudates, gas exchange, and the release of bioactives, thus stimulating healing. However, conventional treatments have some limitations regarding the technological properties of formulations, such as sensory characteristics, ease of application, residence time, and low active penetration in the skin. Particularly, the available treatments may have low efficacy, unsatisfactory hemostatic performance, prolonged duration, and adverse effects. In this sense, there is significant growth in research focusing on improving the treatment of wounds. Thus, soft nanoparticles-based hydrogels emerge as promising alternatives to accelerate the healing process due to their improved rheological characteristics, increased occlusion and bioadhesiveness, greater skin permeation, controlled drug release, and a more pleasant sensory aspect in comparison to conventional forms. Soft nanoparticles are based on organic material from a natural or synthetic source and include liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, and polymeric nanoparticles. This scoping review describes and discusses the main advantages of soft nanoparticle-based hydrogels in the wound healing process. Herein, a state-of-the-art is presented by addressing general aspects of the healing process, current status and limitations of non-encapsulated drug-based hydrogels, and hydrogels formed by different polymers containing soft nanostructures for wound healing. Collectively, the presence of soft nanoparticles improved the performance of natural and synthetic bioactive compounds in hydrogels employed for wound healing, demonstrating the scientific advances obtained so far.

The Development of Eletriptan Hydrobromide Immediate Release Buccal Films Using Central Composite Rotatable Design: An In Vivo and In Vitro Approach

The objective is to develop immediate release buccal films of Eletriptan Hydrobromide (EHBR) using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) E5. The buccal films have the ability to disintegrate rapidly and provide both systemic and local effects. The solvent casting method was employed to prepare the films and the central composite rotatable design (CCRD) model was used for film optimization. All the formulated films were characterized for physicochemical evaluation (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo drug release. The fabricated films were transparent, colorless, and evenly distributed. The FTIR spectra showed no chemical interaction between the drug and excipients. In in-vitro analysis, the film has the highest% drug release (102.61 ± 1.13), while a maximum of 92.87 ± 0.87% drug was diffused across the cellulose membrane having a pore size of 0.45 µm. In the ex-vivo study, drug diffusion across the goat mucosa was performed and 80.9% of the drug was released in 30 min. In-vivo results depict a mean half-life (t½) of 4.54 ± 0.18 h and a Cmax of 128 ± 0.87 (ng/mL); Tmax was achieved in 1 h. Furthermore, instability and histopathological studies buccal films were proven to be safe and act as an effective dosage form. In a nutshell, optimized and safe instant release EHBR buccal films were prepared that have the tendency to provide effect effectively.

Chemical Permeation Enhancers for Topically-Applied Vitamin C and Its Derivatives: A Systematic Review

This paper reports the permeation-enhancing properties and safety of different chemical permeation enhancers (CPEs) on the topical delivery of vitamin C (VC) and its derivatives. A literature search using search keywords or phrases was done in PubMed®, ScienceDirect, and MEDLINE databases. The calculated Log P (cLog P) values were referenced from PubChem and the dermal LD50 values were referenced from safety data sheets. Thirteen studies described the permeation-enhancing activity of 18 identified CPEs in the topical delivery of VC. Correlation analysis between ER and cLog P values for porcine (r = 0.114) and rabbit (r = 0.471) showed weak and moderate positive correlation, while mouse (r = −0.135), and reconstructed human epidermis (r = −0.438) had a negative correlation. The majority (n = 17) of the CPEs belonged to Category 5 of the Globally Harmonized System of Classification or low toxicity hazard. CPEs alone or in combination enhanced permeation (ER = 0.198–106.57) of VC in topical formulations. The combination of isopropyl myristate, sorbitan monolaurate, and polyoxyethylene 80 as CPEs for VC resulted in the highest permeation enhancement ratio.

Tamoxifen Citrate Containing Topical Nanoemulgel Prepared by Ultrasonication Technique: Formulation Design and In Vitro Evaluation

The present study aims to design and develop a nanoemulgel formulation of Tamoxifen citrate (TAM), a water-insoluble, potent anticancer drug, using the spontaneous emulsification method to improve topical delivery, achieve high accumulation at the tumour site, and spare the healthy tissues. The oil-based selection was related to the TAM solubility, while the surfactant and co-surfactant were chosen based on the droplets’ thermodynamic stability and size. Afterwards, a pseudo-ternary phase diagram was built for the most promising formulation using two oils, olive and sesame, with a varied mix of Tween 40 as the surfactant and Trascutol HP as the co-surfactant (Smix), by the optimisation of experiments. The nanoemulsion (NE) formulations that were prepared were found to have an average droplet size of 41.77 ± 1.23 nm and 188.37 ± 3.53 nm, with suitable thermodynamic stability and physicochemical properties. Both olive and sesame oils are natural food additives due to their associated antioxidant effects; therefore, they showed no toxicity profile on breast cell lines (MCF-7, ATCC number HTB-22). The TAM-NE preparations revealed a prolonged and doublings superior cumulative percentage of in vitro release of TAM compared to TAM plain gel suspension over 24 h. The release data suggested that the Higuchi model was the best fitting kinetical model for the developed formulations of NE1, NE9, and NE18. The extended release of the drug as well as an acceptable amount of the drug permeated TAM via nanogel preparations suggested that nanoemulgel (NEG) is suitable for the topical delivery of TAM in breast cancer management. Thus, this work suggests that a nanogel of TAM can improve anticancer properties and reduce systemic adverse effects compared to a suspension preparation of TAM when applied in the treatment of breast cancer.

Beneath the Skin: A Review of Current Trends and Future Prospects of Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems

The ideal drug delivery system has a bioavailability comparable to parenteral dosage forms but is as convenient and easy to use for the patient as oral solid dosage forms. In recent years, there has been increased interest in transdermal drug delivery (TDD) as a non-invasive delivery approach that is generally regarded as being easy to administer to more vulnerable age groups, such as paediatric and geriatric patients, while avoiding certain bioavailability concerns that arise from oral drug delivery due to poor absorbability and metabolism concerns. However, despite its many merits, TDD remains restricted to a select few drugs. The physiology of the skin poses a barrier against the feasible delivery of many drugs, limiting its applicability to only those drugs that possess physicochemical properties allowing them to be successfully delivered transdermally. Several techniques have been developed to enhance the transdermal permeability of drugs. Both chemical (e.g., thermal and mechanical) and passive (vesicle, nanoparticle, nanoemulsion, solid dispersion, and nanocrystal) techniques have been investigated to enhance the permeability of drug substances across the skin. Furthermore, hybrid approaches combining chemical penetration enhancement technologies with physical technologies are being intensively researched to improve the skin permeation of drug substances. This review aims to summarize recent trends in TDD approaches and discuss the merits and drawbacks of the various chemical, physical, and hybrid approaches currently being investigated for improving drug permeability across the skin.

Insights from a Box-Behnken Optimization Study of Microemulsions with Salicylic Acid for Acne Therapy

The present study brings to attention a method to develop salicylic acid-based oil in water (O/W) microemulsions using a tensioactive system based on Tween 80, lecithin, and propylene glycol (PG), enriched with a vegetable oat oil phase and hyaluronic acid. The systems were physically characterized and the Quality by design approach was applied to optimize the attributes of microemulsions using Box-Behnken modeling, combined with response surface methodology. For this purpose, a 33 fractional factorial design was selected. The effect of independent variables namely X1: Tween 80/PG (%), X2: Lecithin (%), X3: Oil phase (%) was analyzed considering their impact upon the internal structure and evaluated parameters chosen as dependent factors: viscosity, mean droplet size, and work of adhesion. A high viscosity, a low droplet size, an adequate wettability-with a reduced mechanical work-and clarity were considered as desirable for the optimal systems. It was found that the optimal microemulsion which complied with the established conditions was based on: Tween 80/PG 40%, lecithin 0.3%, oat oil 2%, salicylic acid 0.5%, hyaluronic acid 1%, and water 56.2%. The response surface methodology was considered an appropriate tool to explain the impact of formulation factors on the physical properties of microemulsions, offering a complex pattern in the assessment of stability and quality attributes for the optimized formulation.

Formulation Development, Characterization and Antifungal Evaluation of Chitosan NPs for Topical Delivery of Voriconazole In Vitro and Ex Vivo

This study aims to develop chitosan-based voriconazole nanoparticles (NPs) using spray-drying technique. The effect of surfactants and polymers on the physicochemical properties, in vitro release, and permeation of NPs was investigated. The prepared NPs containing various surfactants and polymers (e.g., Tween 20 (T20), Tween 80 (T80), sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), propylene glycol (PG), and Polyethylene glycol-4000 (PEG-4000)) were physiochemically evaluated for size, zeta potential, drug content, percent entrapment efficiency, in vitro release, and permeation across rats' skin. A Franz diffusion cell was used for evaluating the in vitro release and permeation profile. The voriconazole-loaded NPs were investigated for antifungal activity against Candida albicans (C. albicans). The prepared NPs were in the nano range (i.e., 160-500 nm) and positively charged. Images taken by a scanning electron microscope showed that all prepared NPs were spherical and smooth. The drug content of NPs ranged from 75% to 90%. Nanoparticle formulations exhibited a good in vitro release profile and transport voriconazole across the rat's skin in a slow control release manner. The NPs containing SLS, T80, and PG exhibited the best penetration and skin retention profile. In addition, the formulation exhibited a potential antifungal effect against C. albicans. It was concluded that the development of chitosan NPs has a great potential for the topical delivery of voriconazole against fungal infection.

Lipid nanocarrier of selegiline augmented anti-Parkinson's effect via P-gp modulation using quercetin

In the present study, SEL was loaded in a lipid nanocarrier (LNC) formulation with a P-gp pump inhibitor i.e., Quercetin (QUR) for improving the bioavailability of the SEL in the brain via the oral route. SEL-QUR LNC was formulated using modified emulsiosonication method and optimized using central composite rotatable design (CCRD) design. The results showed that optimized SEL-QUR LNC formulation was spherical with globule size, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency and zeta potential within the range of 92.46-95.34 nm, 0.239-0.248, 88.94-91.26%, and -6.21 to -7.75 mV respectively. A 4-fold and 6-fold increase was observed in the permeation of SEL from SEL-QUR LNC across the gut sac in comparison with SEL-QUR and SEL suspensions respectively. CLSM images showed 2-fold deeper permeation of SEL across intestinal membrane demonstrating excellent in vivo prospect of the formulation. The behavioural studies including forced swimming, muscle coordination, locomotor activity, akinesia, and catalepsy were performed in the haloperidol-induced PD rats that demonstrated increased efficacy of the formulation in contrast to the SEL-QUR and SEL suspensions. These studies concluded that developed LNC formulation loaded SEL with P-gp inhibitor had the potential in improving bioavailability of SEL in the brain via oral route.

Preparation and Characterization of Curcumin Nanoemulgel Utilizing Ultrasonication Technique for Wound Healing: In Vitro, Ex Vivo, and In Vivo Evaluation

Hydrogels being a drug delivery system has great significance particularly for topical application in cutaneous open wound. Its specific physicochemical properties such as non-adhesiveness, moisture retention, exudate absorption, and gas permeability make them ideal as a drug delivery vehicle for wound healing application. Further, curcumin (a natural bioactive) was selected as a therapeutic agent to incorporate into the hydrogel system to design and develop nanogel pharmaceutical products for wound healing. Although, curcumin possesses remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-infective activity along with hastening the healing process by acting over the different stages of the wound healing process, but its poor biopharmaceutical (low aqueous solubility and skin penetrability) attributes hamper their therapeutic efficacy for skin applications. The current investigation aimed to develop the curcumin-loaded nanogel system and evaluated to check the improvement in the therapeutic efficacy of curcumin through a nanomedicine-based approach for wound healing activity in Wistar rats. The curcumin was enclosed inside the nanoemulsion system prepared through a high-energy ultrasonic emulsification technique at a minimum concentration of surfactant required to nanoemulsify the curcumin-loaded oil system (Labrafac PG) having droplet size 56.25 ± 0.69 nm with polydispersity index 0.05 ± 0.01 and negatively surface charge with zeta potential −20.26 ± 0.65 mV. It was observed that the impact of Smix (surfactant/co-surfactant mixture) ratio on droplet size of generated nanoemulsion is more pronounced at lower Smix concentration (25%) compared to the higher Smix concentration (30%). The optimized curcumin-loaded nanoemulsion was incorporated into a 0.5% Carbopol^® 940 hydrogel system for topical application. The developed curcumin nanoemulgel exhibited thixotropic rheological behavior and a significant (p < 0.05) increase in skin penetrability characteristics compared to curcumin dispersed in conventional hydrogel system. The in vivo wound healing efficacy study and histological examination of healed tissue specimen further signify the role of the nanomedicine-based approach to improve the biopharmaceutical attributes of curcumin.

Thymol-loaded PLGA nanoparticles: an efficient approach for acne treatment

Background

Acne is a common skin disorder that involves an infection inside the hair follicle, which is usually treated with antibiotics, resulting in unbalanced skin microbiota and microbial resistance. For this reason, we developed polymeric nanoparticles encapsulating thymol, a natural active compound with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. In this work, optimization physicochemical characterization, biopharmaceutical behavior and therapeutic efficacy of this novel nanostructured system were assessed.

Results

Thymol NPs (TH-NP) resulted on suitable average particle size below 200 nm with a surface charge around − 28 mV and high encapsulation efficiency (80%). TH-NP released TH in a sustained manner and provide a slow-rate penetration into the hair follicle, being highly retained inside the skin. TH-NP possess a potent antimicrobial activity against Cutibacterium acnes and minor effect towards Staphylococcus epidermis, the major resident of the healthy skin microbiota. Additionally, the stability and sterility of developed NPs were maintained along storage.

Conclusion

TH-NP showed a promising and efficient alternative for the treatment of skin acne infection, avoiding antibiotic administration, reducing side effects, and preventing microbial drug resistance, without altering the healthy skin microbiota. Additionally, TH-NP enhanced TH antioxidant activity, constituting a natural, preservative-free, approach for acne treatment.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-01092-z.

Synchronizing In Silico, In Vitro, and In Vivo Studies for the Successful Nose to Brain Delivery of an Anticancer Molecule

Sesamol is a sesame seed constituent with reported activity against many types of cancer. In this work, two types of nanocarriers, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and polymeric nanoparticles (PNs), were exploited to improve sesamol efficiency against the glioma cancer cell line. The ability of the proposed systems for efficient brain targeting intranasally was also inspected. By the aid of two docking programs, the virtual loading pattern inside these nanocarriers was matched to the real experimental results. Interactions involved in sesamol-carrier binding were also assessed, followed by a discussion of how different scoring functions account for these interactions. The study is an extension of the computer-assisted drug formulation design series, which represents a promising initiative for an upcoming industrial innovation. The results proved the power of combined in silico tools in predicting members with the highest sesamol payload suitable for delivering a sufficient dose to the brain. Among nine carriers, glyceryl monostearate (GMS) and polycaprolactone (PCL) scored the highest sesamol payload practically and computationally. The EE % was 66.09 ± 0.92 and 61.73 ± 0.47 corresponding to a ΔG (binding energy) of -8.85 ± 0.16 and -5.04 ± 0.11, respectively. Dynamic light scattering evidenced the formation of 215.1 ± 7.2 nm and 414.25 ± 1.6 nm nanoparticles, respectively. Both formulations demonstrated an efficient cytotoxic effect and brain-targeting ability compared to the sesamol solution. This was evidenced by low IC₅₀ (38.50 ± 10.37 μM and 27.81 ± 2.76 μM) and high drug targeting efficiency (7.64 ± 1.89-fold and 13.72 ± 4.1-fold) and direct transport percentages (86.12 ± 3.89 and 92.198 ± 2.09) for GMS-SLNs and PCL-PNs, respectively. The results also showed how different formulations, having different compositions and characteristics, could affect the cytotoxic and targeting ability.

The important role of ethical behavior in improving customer loyalty

PURPOSE: This research was done to 1). Explain the influence of ethical behavior on customer trust and loyalty. 2) Explain the influence of ethical behavior on customer commitment and loyalty. 3) Analyze the influence of ethical behavior on customer trust and commitment. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY: This research was done using well-structured and comprehensive procedures to examine the relationship among variables in order to obtain valid answers for the research questions. An explanatory design in the form of survey was employed to describe and investigate the relevant phenomena and factual information. FINDINGS: The conclusions of this research are drawn as follows. 1) Ethical behavior has a significant positive influence on trust. This means that the ethical behavior of employees in providing services to customers increases customer trust. 2) Ethical behavior has a positive and insignificant influence on commitment. This implies that ethical behavior shown by employees is not yet able to improve customer commitment. 3) Ethical behavior has a negative and insignificant influence on loyalty. Therefore, ethical behavior does not have any significant role in increasing customer loyalty. 4) Trust has a significant positive effect on customer commitment. This implies that customer trust plays an important role in increasing the commitment of customers. 5) Trust has a significant positive influence on customer loyalty. Thus, stronger trust supports stronger customer loyalty. 6) Commitment has a significant positive influence on loyalty. This implies that the customer’s commitment upon their perception of services provided by employees is able to increase customer loyalty. ORIGINALITY: The population of this study included all Bank customers in Denpasar City. Samples were selected using a purposive sampling method to select samples based on certain specific objectives. Only customers who had completed their transaction at the Bank could be selected as the samples.

Non-ionic surfactants as innovative skin penetration enhancers: insight in the mechanism of interaction with simple 2D stratum corneum model system

Transdermal drug delivery is a passive diffusion process of an active compound through the skin which is affected by drug solubility in the multilamellar lipidic matrix of the stratum corneum (SC). Widely used non-ionic surfactants (NIS) can be added into transdermal formulations to enhance the penetration of drugs by influencing the packing of the stratum corneum lipidic matrix. Objective of our study was to analyse the interaction between selected NIS and a simple SC lipidic matrix model system using a variety of surface-sensitive techniques based on the application of Langmuir monolayers. In this work, the well-known surfactant Polysorbate 80 was compared with a modern surfactant Sucrose monolaurate. Infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) and epifluorescence microscopy provide information about the effects of those surfactants on the SC model system. Monolayer isotherms of the SC model mixture indicate a very stiff and well-packed layer, however, packing defects are evidenced in epifluorescence studies. The injection of the two NIS underneath the SC monolayers proved their potential to penetrate into the SC model at the air-water interface having a maximum insertion pressure (MIP) above the assumed lateral pressure of biological membranes. The NIS adsorbed preferentially into packing defects seen in epifluorescence microscopy studies with Sucrose monolaurate being more active than Polysorbate 80 in disordering the SC monolayer.

Enhancement strategies for transdermal drug delivery systems: current trends and applications

Transdermal drug delivery systems have become an intriguing research topic in pharmaceutical technology area and one of the most frequently developed pharmaceutical products in global market. The use of these systems can overcome associated drawbacks of other delivery routes, such as oral and parenteral. The authors will review current trends, and future applications of transdermal technologies, with specific focus on providing a comprehensive understanding of transdermal drug delivery systems and enhancement strategies. This article will initially discuss each transdermal enhancement method used in the development of first-generation transdermal products. These methods include drug/vehicle interactions, vesicles and particles, stratum corneum modification, energy-driven methods and stratum corneum bypassing techniques. Through suitable design and implementation of active stratum corneum bypassing methods, notably microneedle technology, transdermal delivery systems have been shown to deliver both low and high molecular weight drugs. Microneedle technology platforms have proven themselves to be more versatile than other transdermal systems with opportunities for intradermal delivery of drugs/biotherapeutics and therapeutic drug monitoring. These have shown that microneedles have been a prospective strategy for improving transdermal delivery systems.

Novel Clove Essential Oil Nanoemulgel Tailored by Taguchi's Model and Scaffold-Based Nanofibers: Phytopharmaceuticals with Promising Potential as Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors in External Inflammation

PURPOSE

Clove essential oil is a phytochemical possessing a vast array of biological activities. Nevertheless, fabricating nano topical delivery systems targeted to augment the anti-inflammatory activity of the oil has not been investigated so far. Accordingly, in this study, controlled release nanoparticulate systems, namely nanoemulgel and nanofibers (NFs), of the oil were developed to achieve such goal.

METHODS

The nanoemulsion was incorporated in the hydrogel matrix of mixed biopolymers - chitosan, guar gum and gum acacia - to formulate nanoemulsion-based nanoemulgel. Taguchi's model was adopted to evaluate the effect of independently controlled parameters, namely, the concentration of chitosan (X1), guar gum (X2), and gum acacia (X3) on different dependently measured parameters. Additionally, the nanoemulsion-based NFs were prepared by the electrospinning technique using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer. Extensive in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo evaluations of the aforementioned formulae were conducted.

RESULTS

Both Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) established the complete dispersion of the nanoemulsion in the polymeric matrices of the prepared nanoemulgel and NFs. The ex vivo skin permeation data of clove essential oil from the prepared formulations showed that NFs can sustain its penetration through the skin comparably with nanoemulgel. Topical treatment with NFs (once application) and nanoemulgel (twice application) evoked a marvelous in vivo anti-inflammatory activity against croton oil-induced mouse skin inflammation model when compared with pure clove essential oil along with relatively higher efficacy of medicated NFs than that of medicated nanoemulgel. Such prominent anti-inflammatory activity was affirmed by histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that nanoemulsion-based nanoemulgel and nanoemulsion-based NFs could be introduced to the phytomedicine field as promising topical delivery systems for effective treatment of inflammatory diseases instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that possess adverse effects.

Development, physico-chemical characterization and in-vitro studies of hydrogels containing rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoemulsion for topical application

OBJECTIVES

Natural sources with antioxidant activity, such as rosmarinic acid (RA), have been considered as an interesting approach for the development of new anti-ageing skin products. In this context, this study aimed to develop hydrogels containing RA-loaded nanoemulsions and evaluate the effect of the addition of Tween® 80 (a nonionic cosurfactant) in formulations intended to be used for topical application.

METHODS

Physico-chemical characterization, in-vitro release and skin retention/permeation from hydrogels of RA-loaded nanoemulsions (containing or not Tween® 80) were evaluated. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles were also investigated in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells).

KEY FINDINGS

It was observed that all formulations presented adequate physico-chemical characterization for topical application. Furthermore, the results also demonstrated that the presence of Tween® 80 decreased the droplet size and polydispersity index of nanoemulsions and hydrogels. An extended RA release was noted for the hydrogels. However, when comparing the hydrogels, a positive effect of the presence of Tween® 80 on RA retention/permeation in total skin was seen. The RA-loaded nanoemulsion safety profiles demonstrated a good tolerability (3.125-100 μm) in HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall results demonstrated that the formulations developed in this study can be considered as a suitable carrier for RA in a topical application targeting new anti-ageing skin care products.

Polymeric mixed micelles as nanomedicines: Achievements and perspectives

During the past few decades, polymeric micelles have raised special attention as novel nano-sized drug delivery systems for optimizing the treatment and diagnosis of numerous diseases. These nanocarriers exhibit several in vitro and in vivo advantages as well as increased stability and solubility to hydrophobic drugs. An interesting approach for optimizing these properties and overcoming some of their disadvantages is the combination of two or more polymers in order to assemble polymeric mixed micelles. This review article gives an overview on the current state of the art of several mixed micellar formulations as nanocarriers for drugs and imaging probes, evaluating their ongoing status (preclinical or clinical stage), with special emphasis on type of copolymers, physicochemical properties, in vivo progress achieved so far and toxicity profiles. Besides, the present article presents relevant research outcomes about polymeric mixed micelles as better drug delivery systems, when compared to polymeric pristine micelles. The reported data clearly illustrates the promise of these nanovehicles reaching clinical stages in the near future.

A simplified approach for estimating skin permeation parameters from in vitro finite dose absorption studies

Historically, percutaneous absorption permeation parameters have been derived from in vitro infinite dose studies, yet there is uncertainty in their accuracy if the applied vehicle saturates or damages the stratum corneum, or when the permeation parameters are inappropriately derived from cumulative absorption data. An approach is provided for determining penetration parameters from in vitro finite dose data. Key variables, and equations for their derivation, are identified from the literature and provide permeation parameters that use only Tmax , AUC, and AUMC from finite dose data. The equations are tested with computer-generated model data and to actual study data. Derived permeation parameters obtained from the computer model data match those used in generating the simulated finite dose data. Parameters obtained from actual study data reasonably and acceptably model the penetration profile kinetics of the study data. From in vitro finite dose absorption data, three parameters can be obtained: the diffusion transit time (td ), which characterizes the diffusion coefficient, the partition volume (Vm P), which characterizes the partition coefficient, and the permeation coefficient (Kp ). These parameters can be obtained from finite dose data without having to know the length of the diffusion pathway through the membrane.

In vitro permeation of micronized and nanonized alaptide from semisolid formulations

This study is focused on in vitro permeation of the original Czech compound, a skin/mucosa tissue regeneration promoter, known under the international nonproprietary name “alaptide,” in micronized and nanonized forms. Alaptide showed a great potential for local applications for treatment and/or regeneration of the injured skin. The above mentioned technological modifications influence the permeation of alaptide through artificial or biological membranes, such as PAMPA or skin. The permeation of micronized and nanonized form of alaptide formulated to various semisolid pharmaceutical compositions through full-thickness pig ear skin using a Franz cell has been investigated in detail. In general, it can be concluded that the nanonized alaptide permeated through the skin less than the micronized form; different observations were made for permeation through the PAMPA system, where the micronized form showed lower permeation than the nanonized alaptide.