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Qu Z, Shah DH, Sablani SS, Ross CF, Sankaran S, Tang J. Thermal inactivation kinetics of Salmonella and Campylobacter in chicken livers. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103961. [PMID: 38941761 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Salmonella and Campylobacter are major foodborne pathogens that cause outbreaks associated with contaminated chicken liver. Proper cooking is necessary to avoid the risk of illness to consumers. This study tested the thermal inactivation of a 4-strain Salmonella cocktail and a 3-strain Campylobacter cocktail in chicken livers separately at temperatures ranging from 55.0 to 62.5°C. Inoculated livers were sealed in aluminum cells and immersed in a water bath. The decimal reduction time (D-values) of Salmonella in chicken livers were 9.01, 2.36, 0.82, and 0.23 min at 55.0, 57.5, 60.0, and 62.5°C, respectively. The D-values of Campylobacter ranged from 2.22 min at 55.0°C to 0.19 min at 60.0°C. Salmonella and Campylobacter had similar z-values in chicken livers of 4.8 and 4.6°C, respectively. Chicken livers can be heated to internal temperatures of 70.0 to 73.9°C for at least 1.6 to 0.2 s to achieve a 7-log reduction of Salmonella. Validation tests demonstrated that heating chicken livers to internal temperatures of 70.0 to 73.9°C for 2 to 0 s resulted in a reduction of Salmonella exceeding 7 logs. Collectively, these data show that Salmonella exhibits higher heat resistance than Campylobacter in chicken livers. Therefore, Salmonella could be considered as the target pathogen when designing thermal treatments or cooking instructions for liver products. These findings will aid in designing effective thermal processing for both industrial and home cooking to eliminate Salmonella and Campylobacter, ensuring consumer safety when consuming chicken liver products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Qu
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA
| | - Devendra H Shah
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA; Texas Tech University School of Veterinary Medicine, Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA.
| | - Shyam S Sablani
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA
| | - Carolyn F Ross
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA
| | - Sindhuja Sankaran
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA
| | - Juming Tang
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-6120, USA
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2
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Stearns R, Bowen K, Taylor RL, Moritz J, Matak K, Tou J, Freshour A, Jaczynski J, Boltz T, Li X, Long C, Shen C. Microbial profile of broiler carcasses processed at a university scale mobile poultry processing unit. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103576. [PMID: 38430779 PMCID: PMC10912918 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Chicken and chicken products have been associated with foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Poultry comprises an important segment of the agricultural economy (75 million birds processed as of 2019) in West Virginia (WV). The risk of pathogens on processed chickens has risen with the increased popularity of mobile poultry processing units (MPPUs). This study evaluated the microbial safety of broilers processed in a MPPU in WV. This study assessed aerobic plate counts (APCs), E. coli counts and the presence/absence of Salmonella and Campylobacter on 96 broiler carcasses following each MPPU step of scalding, eviscerating, and chilling. Samples were either chilled in ice water only (W) or ice water with 5 ppm chlorine (CW). The highest number of bacteria recovered from carcasses were APCs (4.21 log10CFU/mL) and E. coli (3.77 log10CFU/mL; P = 0.02). A total reduction of 0.30 (P = 0.10) and 0.63 (P = 0.01) log10CFU/mL for APCs and E. coli, respectively, occurred from chilling carcasses in CW. Overall, results show that E. coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced from the initial scalding to the chilling step. However, Salmonella frequency doubled (15.63-34.38%) after the evisceration step, indicating that washing carcasses after evisceration may be a critical control point in preventing cross-contamination by Salmonella. Proper chilling is also an important microbial mitigation step in MPPU processing. Results indicate that Campylobacter was more resistant to chilling than Salmonella. Campylobacter was not completely inactivated until carcasses were chilled in CW, whereas W was sufficient to reduce Salmonella on carcasses. The results led to the conclusion that although 5 ppm chlorine (Cl2) achieved more bacterial reductions than water alone, the reductions were not always significant (P > 0.05). Further MPPU studies are needed to verify more effective chilling and processing strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Stearns
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Kristina Bowen
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Robert L Taylor
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Joe Moritz
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Kristen Matak
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Janet Tou
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Annette Freshour
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Jacek Jaczynski
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Timothy Boltz
- Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
| | - Xiang Li
- Egg and Poultry Production Safety Research Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA 30605 USA
| | - Carly Long
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Cangliang Shen
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
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3
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Kido J, Shimohata T, Aihara M, Tsunedomi A, Hatayama S, Amano S, Sato Y, Fukushima S, Kanda Y, Tentaku A, Ishida K, Iba H, Harada Y, Uebanso T, Mawatari K, Akutagawa M, Takahashi A. Reduction of Campylobacter jejuni contamination by using UVA-LED and sodium hypochlorite on the surface of chicken meat. JOURNAL OF MICROORGANISM CONTROL 2024; 29:91-97. [PMID: 38880621 DOI: 10.4265/jmc.29.2_91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Campylobacter jejuni causes gastroenteritis in humans and is a major concern in food safety. Commercially prepared chicken meats are frequently contaminated with C. jejuni, which is closely associated with the diffusion of intestinal contents in poultry processing plants. Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) is commonly used during chicken processing to prevent food poisoning; however, its antimicrobial activity is not effective in the organic-rich solutions. In this study, we investigated the potential of a new photo-disinfection system, UVA-LED, for the disinfection of C. jejuni-contaminated chicken surfaces. The data indicated that UVA irradiation significantly killed C. jejuni and that its killing ability was significantly facilitated in NaClO-treated chickens. Effective inactivation of C. jejuni was achieved using a combination of UVA and NaClO, even in the organic-rich condition. The results of this study show that synergistic disinfection using a combination of UVA and NaClO has potential beneficial effects in chicken processing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Kido
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Takaaki Shimohata
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Faculty of Marine Biosciences, Fukui Prefectural University
| | - Mutsumi Aihara
- Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences,Tokushima University
| | - Akari Tsunedomi
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Health and Nutrition, Fukuoka Women's Junior College
| | - Sho Hatayama
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Nutrition, School of Human Cultures, The University of Shiga Prefecture
| | - Sachie Amano
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Yuri Sato
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Shiho Fukushima
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Yuna Kanda
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Aya Tentaku
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Kai Ishida
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Microbial Control, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Hitomi Iba
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Health and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Management, Nagasaki International University
| | - Yumi Harada
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Takashi Uebanso
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Microbial Control, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Kazuaki Mawatari
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Microbial Control, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
| | - Masatake Akutagawa
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Institute of Socio Techno Sciences, Tokushima UniversityGraduate School
| | - Akira Takahashi
- Department of Preventive Environment and Nutrition, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
- Department of Microbial Control, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School
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4
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Dittoe DK, Olson EG, Wythe LA, Lawless ZG, Thompson DR, Perry LM, Ricke SC. Mitigating the attachment of Salmonella Infantis on isolated poultry skin with cetylpyridinium chloride. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293549. [PMID: 38127975 PMCID: PMC10735015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
To provide the poultry industry with effective mitigation strategies, the effects of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) on the reduction of Salmonella Infantis, hilA expression, and chicken skin microbiota were evaluated. Chicken breast skins (4×4 cm; N = 100, n = 10, k = 5) were inoculated with Salmonella (Typhimurium or Infantis) at 4°C (30min) to obtain 108 CFU/g attachment. Skins were shaken (30s), with remaining bacteria being considered firmly attached. Treatments were applied as 30s dips in 50 mL: no inocula-no-treatment control (NINTC), no treatment control (NTC), tap water (TW), TW+600 ppm PAA (PAA), or TW+0.5% CPC (CPC). Excess fluid was shaken off (30s). Samples were homogenized in nBPW (1 min). Samples were discarded. Salmonella was enumerated and Log10 transformed. Reverse transcriptase-qPCR (rt-qPCR) was performed targeting hilA gene and normalized using the 2-ΔΔCt method. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA in RStudio with means separated by Tukey's HSD (P≤0.05). Genomic DNA of rinsates was extracted, 16S rRNA gene (V4) was sequenced (MiSeq), and data analyzed in QIIME2 (P≤0.05 and Q≤0.05). CPC and PAA affected Salmonella levels differently with CPC being effective against S. Infantis compared to TW (P<0.05). Treatment with CPC on S. Infantis-infected skin altered the hilA expression compared to TW (P<0.05). When inoculated with S. Typhimurium, there was no difference between the microbiota diversity of skins treated with PAA and CPC; however, when inoculated with S. Infantis, there was a difference in the Shannon's Entropy and Jaccard Dissimilarity between the two treatments (P<0.05). Using ANCOM at the genus level, Brochothrix was significant (W = 118) among skin inoculated with S. Typhimurium. Among S. Infantis inoculated, Yersiniaceae, Enterobacterales, Lachnospiraceae CHKCI001, Clostridia vadinBB60 group, Leuconostoc, Campylobacter, and bacteria were significant (408). CPC and PAA-treated skins had lowest relative abundance of the genera. In conclusion, CPC mitigated Salmonella Infantis, altered hilA expression, and influenced the chicken skin microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana K. Dittoe
- Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, United States of America
| | - Elena G. Olson
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Lindsey A. Wythe
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Zachary G. Lawless
- Department of Computer Science and Computer Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Dale R. Thompson
- Department of Computer Science and Computer Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Lindsey M. Perry
- Safe Foods Corporation, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Steven C. Ricke
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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5
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El-Saadony MT, Saad AM, Yang T, Salem HM, Korma SA, Ahmed AE, Mosa WFA, Abd El-Mageed TA, Selim S, Al Jaouni SK, Zaghloul RA, Abd El-Hack ME, El-Tarabily KA, Ibrahim SA. Avian campylobacteriosis, prevalence, sources, hazards, antibiotic resistance, poultry meat contamination, and control measures: a comprehensive review. Poult Sci 2023; 102:102786. [PMID: 37454641 PMCID: PMC10371856 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.102786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian campylobacteriosis is a vandal infection that poses human health hazards. Campylobacter is usually colonized in the avian gut revealing mild signs in the infected birds, but retail chicken carcasses have high contamination levels of Campylobacter spp. Consequently, the contaminated avian products constitute the main source of human infection with campylobacteriosis and result in severe clinical symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, spasm, and deaths in sensitive cases. Thus, the current review aims to shed light on the prevalence of Campylobacter in broiler chickens, Campylobacter colonization, bird immunity against Campylobacter, sources of poultry infection, antibiotic resistance, poultry meat contamination, human health hazard, and the use of standard antimicrobial technology during the chicken processing of possible control strategies to overcome such problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed T El-Saadony
- Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Saad
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Tao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, 571199, China
| | - Heba M Salem
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, 12211, Egypt
| | - Sameh A Korma
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Ezzat Ahmed
- Biology Department, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha, 61413, Saudi Arabia; Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Abha, 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Walid F A Mosa
- Plant Production Department (Horticulture-Pomology), Faculty of Agriculture, Saba Basha, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21531, Egypt
| | - Taia A Abd El-Mageed
- Department of Soils and Water, Faculty of Agriculture, Fayoum University, Fayoum, 63514, Egypt
| | - Samy Selim
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka, 72388, Saudi Arabia
| | - Soad K Al Jaouni
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, Yousef Abdulatif Jameel Scientific Chair of Prophetic Medicine Application, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rashed A Zaghloul
- Department Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Benha University, Moshtohor, Qaluybia, 13736, Egypt
| | - Mohamed E Abd El-Hack
- Poultry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Khaled A El-Tarabily
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, 15551, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Salam A Ibrahim
- Food Microbiology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Carver Hall, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, North Carolina A & T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27411-1064
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6
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Zhang J, Lu X. Susceptibility of Campylobacter jejuni to Stressors in Agrifood Systems and Induction of a Viable-but-Nonculturable State. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0009623. [PMID: 37067418 PMCID: PMC10231195 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00096-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many bacteria can become viable but nonculturable (VBNC) in response to stressors commonly identified in agrifood systems. Campylobacter is able to enter the VBNC state to evade unfavorable environmental conditions, but how food processing can induce Campylobacter jejuni to enter this state and the potential role of foods in inducing the VBNC state in C. jejuni remains largely unknown. In this study, the culturability and viability of C. jejuni cells were investigated under chlorine treatment (25 ppm), aerobic stress (atmospheric condition), and low-temperature (4°C) conditions that mimicked food processing. In addition, the behaviors of C. jejuni cells in ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) and pasteurized milk were also monitored during refrigerated storage. The numbers of viable and culturable C. jejuni cells in both the pure bacterial culture and food matrices were separately determined by propidium monoazide (PMA)-quantitative PCR (qPCR) and plating assay. The C. jejuni cells lost their culturability but partially retained their viability (1% to 10%) once mixed with chlorine. In comparison, ~10% of C. jejuni cells were induced to enter the VBNC state after 24 h and 20 days under aerobic and low-temperature conditions, respectively. The viability of the C. jejuni cells remained stable during the induction process in UHT (>10%) and pasteurized (>10%) milk. The number of culturable C. jejuni cells decreased quickly in pasteurized milk, but culturable cells could still be detected in the end (day 21). In contrast, the number of culturable C. jejuni cells slowly decreased, and they became undetectable after >42 days in UHT milk. The C. jejuni cells responded differently to various stress conditions and survived in high numbers in the VBNC state in agrifood systems. IMPORTANCE The VBNC state of pathogens can pose risks to food safety and public health because the pathogens cannot be detected using conventional microbiological culture-based methods but can resuscitate under favorable conditions to develop virulence. As a leading cause of human gastroenteritis worldwide, C. jejuni can enter the VBNC state to survive in the environment and food-processing chain with high prevalence. In this study, the effect of food-processing conditions and food products on the development of VBNC state in C. jejuni was investigated, providing a better understanding of the interaction between C. jejuni and the agroecosystem. The knowledge elicited from this study can aid in developing novel intervention strategies to reduce the food safety risks associated with this microbe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingbin Zhang
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Xiaonan Lu
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
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7
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Kingsbury JM, Horn B, Armstrong B, Midwinter A, Biggs P, Callander M, Mulqueen K, Brooks M, van der Logt P, Biggs R. The impact of primary and secondary processing steps on Campylobacter concentrations on chicken carcasses and portions. Food Microbiol 2023; 110:104168. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Molecular Targets in Campylobacter Infections. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13030409. [PMID: 36979344 PMCID: PMC10046527 DOI: 10.3390/biom13030409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Human campylobacteriosis results from foodborne infections with Campylobacter bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, and represents a leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. After consumption of contaminated poultry meat, constituting the major source of pathogenic transfer to humans, infected patients develop abdominal pain and diarrhea. Post-infectious disorders following acute enteritis may occur and affect the nervous system, the joints or the intestines. Immunocompromising comorbidities in infected patients favor bacteremia, leading to vascular inflammation and septicemia. Prevention of human infection is achieved by hygiene measures focusing on the reduction of pathogenic food contamination. Molecular targets for the treatment and prevention of campylobacteriosis include bacterial pathogenicity and virulence factors involved in motility, adhesion, invasion, oxygen detoxification, acid resistance and biofilm formation. This repertoire of intervention measures has recently been completed by drugs dampening the pro-inflammatory immune responses induced by the Campylobacter endotoxin lipo-oligosaccharide. Novel pharmaceutical strategies will combine anti-pathogenic and anti-inflammatory effects to reduce the risk of both anti-microbial resistance and post-infectious sequelae of acute enteritis. Novel strategies and actual trends in the combat of Campylobacter infections are presented in this review, alongside molecular targets applied for prevention and treatment strategies.
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9
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Laranja DC, Cacciatore FA, Malheiros PDS, Tondo EC. Application of peracetic acid by spray or immersion in chicken carcasses to reduce
cross‐contamination
in the slaughter process. J Food Saf 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Comparsi Laranja
- Department of Food Science Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA‐UFRGS) Porto Alegre Brazil
| | - Fabíola Ayres Cacciatore
- Department of Food Science Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA‐UFRGS) Porto Alegre Brazil
| | - Patrícia da Silva Malheiros
- Department of Food Science Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA‐UFRGS) Porto Alegre Brazil
| | - Eduardo Cesar Tondo
- Department of Food Science Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA‐UFRGS) Porto Alegre Brazil
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Klaharn K, Pichpol D, Meeyam T, Harintharanon T, Lohaanukul P, Punyapornwithaya V. Bacterial contamination of chicken meat in slaughterhouses and the associated risk factors: A nationwide study in Thailand. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0269416. [PMID: 35675365 PMCID: PMC9176793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Slaughterhouses are a key source of bacterial contamination in poultry meat and products, which is a major health and economic concern for several public authorities. This study aimed to quantify the non-compliance of bacterial contamination on chicken meat sampled from slaughterhouses and identify risk factors associated with the contamination. A questionnaire survey of 569 chicken slaughterhouses was undertaken and 1,707 meat samples were collected to determine the level of bacterial contamination. The proportion of the non-compliance associated with aerobic plate count [APC] (24.6%), Staphylococcus aureus (6.3%), Enterococcus spp. (24.7%), coliforms (13.5%), Escherichia coli (33.3%), and Salmonella spp. (33.4%) based on the livestock authorities' criteria was determined. Our results highlighted that the scalding process without scalding water temperature control or improper scalding increased the risk of APC (odds ratio, OR = 4.84, 95% CI: 2.72-8.61), S. aureus (OR = 2.68, 95% CI: 1.29-5.55), Enterococcus spp. (OR = 3.38, 95% CI: 2.01-5.69), coliforms (OR = 3.01, 95% CI: 1.47-6.15), and E. coli (OR = 2.69, 95% CI: 1.58-4.56) contamination on meat samples. Meat from eviscerated carcasses was more likely to be non-compliance due to contamination by E. coli (OR = 1.96, 95% CI: 1.14-3.38). Furthermore, open or semi-closed system slaughterhouses (OR = 1.79, 95% CI: 1.23-2.60) and lack of equipment for specific slaughtering areas (OR = 1.65, 95% CI: 1.04-2.61) increased the likelihood of Salmonella spp. occurrence. This is the first study of factors influencing the non-compliance of meat samples across Thailand. Authorities can use the study findings to enhance food safety strategies at the national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunnanut Klaharn
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Bioscience, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Duangporn Pichpol
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Bioscience, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Centre for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Tongkorn Meeyam
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Bioscience, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Centre for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | | | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Centre for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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11
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Nahar S, Jeong HL, Cho AJ, Park JH, Han S, Kim Y, Park SH, Ha SD. Efficacy of ficin and peroxyacetic acid against Salmonella enterica serovar Thompson biofilm on plastic, eggshell, and chicken skin. Food Microbiol 2022; 104:103997. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.103997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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12
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Effect of caprylic acid alone or in combination with peracetic acid against multidrug-resistant Salmonella Heidelberg on chicken drumsticks in a soft scalding temperature-time setup. Poult Sci 2021; 100:101421. [PMID: 34601442 PMCID: PMC8531859 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The antimicrobial efficacy of caprylic acid (CA), a medium-chain fatty acid, against multidrug-resistant Salmonella Heidelberg (MDR SH) on chicken drumsticks in a soft-scalding temperature-time setup was investigated. Based on the standardization experiments in nutrient media and on chicken breast fillet portions, intact chicken drumsticks were spot inoculated with MDR SH and immersed in water with or without antimicrobial treatments at 54°C for 2 min. The treatments included 0.5% CA, 1% CA, 0.05% peracetic acid (PAA), 0.5% CA + 0.05% PAA, and 1.0% CA + 0.05% PAA. Additionally, the efficacy of the potential scald treatments against MDR SH survival on drumsticks for a storage period of 48 h at 4°C was determined. Furthermore, the effect of these treatments on the surface color of the drumsticks was also evaluated. Appropriate controls were included for statistical comparisons. The antimicrobial treatments resulted in a significant reduction of MDR SH on drumsticks. For the lower inoculum (∼2.5 log10 CFU/g) experiments, 0.5% CA, 1% CA, 0.05% PAA, 0.5% CA + 0.05% PAA, and 1.0% CA + 0.05% PAA resulted in 0.7-, 1.0-, 2.5-, 1.4-, and 1.5- log10 CFU/g reduction of MDR SH on drumsticks, respectively (P < 0.05). The same treatments resulted in 0.9-, 1.3-, 2.5-, 2.2-, and 2.6- log10 CFU/g reduction of MDR SH when the drumsticks were contaminated with a higher inoculum (∼4.5 log10 CFU/g) level (P < 0.05). Moreover, the antimicrobial treatments inactivated MDR SH in the treatment water to undetectable levels, whereas 2.0- to 4.0- log10 CFU/mL MDR SH survived in the positive controls (P < 0.05). Also, the treatments were effective in inhibiting MDR SH on the drumsticks compared to the respective controls during a storage period of 48 h at 4°C; however, the magnitude of reduction remained the same as observed during the treatment (P < 0.05). Additionally, none of the treatments affected the color of the drumsticks (P > 0.05). Results indicate that CA could be an effective natural processing aid against MDR SH on chicken products.
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13
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Prevalence and risk factors for Salmonella spp. contamination of slaughtered chickens in Taiwan. Prev Vet Med 2021; 196:105476. [PMID: 34482151 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The present study was designed to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella contamination in Taiwanese broilers at slaughter and to identify risk factors associated with the presence of Salmonella in processed batches of broilers. Carcass rinse samples from 362 batches of broilers were collected from 45 chicken abattoirs in Taiwan between February 2013 and November 2014. Univariate analyses and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify putative risk factors for contamination. Salmonella was detected in 32.6 % (95 % CI: 30.4-34.8) of individual broilers and 56.4 % (95 % CI: 51.1-61.5) of the sampled batches. The multivariable logistic regression model identified season (July to November) (OR = 1.95; 95 % CI: 1.2-3.2) as increasing the risk of infection. Abattoirs in the southern region (Taichung and Kaohsiung) (OR = 0.45; 95 % CI: 0.3-0.8); batches scalded for > 90 s (OR = 0.2; 95 % CI: 0.1-0.3) and batches of commercial white broilers (BR) (OR = 0.21; 95 % CI: 0.1-0.4) all had a decreased risk of contamination compared to abattoirs from the northern region, scalding < 90 s and Taiwan native chickens (TNC), respectively. This study highlights the influence of environmental conditions and poultry breed on the risk of Salmonella contamination of chickens during slaughter.
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14
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A new disinfectant technique for Campylobacter jejuni and spoilage bacteria on chicken skin using a high-pressure pulsed jet spray apparatus. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Thermal inactivation of New Zealand Campylobacter jejuni strains in chicken under dynamic conditions. J FOOD ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Dewi G, Nair DVT, Peichel C, Johnson TJ, Noll S, Kollanoor Johny A. Effect of lemongrass essential oil against multidrug-resistant Salmonella Heidelberg and its attachment to chicken skin and meat. Poult Sci 2021; 100:101116. [PMID: 34089940 PMCID: PMC8182231 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella Heidelberg (S. Heidelberg) is a major pathogen implicated in foodborne outbreaks for which poultry products can serve as an epidemiological source. This study determined the efficacy of GRAS-status lemongrass essential oil (LGEO) against S. Heidelberg in vitro and on the pathogen's attachment to skin and meat. At first, employing in vitro assays, the effect of LGEO on multidrug-resistant S. Heidelberg multiplication and motility was examined. Biofilm inhibition and inactivation assays were also performed. The quorum-sensing modulating effect of LGEO was determined. In follow-up experiments, chicken skin or meat samples inoculated with S. Heidelberg were treated with various concentrations of LGEO at different time points at simulated scalding (54°C) and chilling (4°C) temperatures. The samples were incubated, and the surviving populations of S. Heidelberg were enumerated to determine if LGEO could be a potential processing aid in poultry operations. Duplicate samples were included in each treatment, and the experiments were repeated at least 3 times. Significant reductions of S. Heidelberg of at least 4.0 log10 CFU/mL after 24 h in nutrient broth and poultry cecal contents was observed with 0.5% LGEO. Complete inhibition of motility, biofilm formation, and inactivation of pre-formed biofilms was observed with 0.15% LGEO (P ≤ 0.05). Concentrations of LGEO at 0.5% and 1% affected violacein production (P ≤ 0.05). On skin samples, all concentrations significantly reduced S. Heidelberg by 1.2 to 3.9 log10 CFU/sample after 2 min at 54°C. We obtained a significant reduction of the pathogen in meat samples at 54°C and skin samples at 4°C with 2% LGEO. All concentrations significantly reduced S. Heidelberg from the treatment water kept at 4°C and 54°C (P ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, LGEO could potentially serve as a natural antimicrobial strategy in scalding and chilling waters to reduce S. Heidelberg during processing. However, additional studies are warranted before recommending its commercial use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Dewi
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Divek V T Nair
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Claire Peichel
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Timothy J Johnson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Sally Noll
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
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17
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A quantitative risk assessment model of Salmonella contamination for the yellow-feathered broiler chicken supply chain in China. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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18
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Modeling Salmonella spp. inactivation in chicken meat subjected to isothermal and non-isothermal temperature profiles. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 344:109110. [PMID: 33657496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella genus has foodborne pathogen species commonly involved in many outbreaks related to the consumption of chicken meat. Many studies have aimed to model bacterial inactivation as a function of the temperature. Due to the large heterogeneity of the results, a unified description of Salmonella spp. inactivation behavior is hard to establish. In the current study, by evaluating the root mean square errors, mean absolute deviation, and Akaike and Bayesian information criteria, the double Weibull model was considered the most accurate primary model to fit 61 datasets of Salmonella inactivation in chicken meat. Results can be interpreted as if the bacterial population is divided into two subpopulations consisting of one more resistant (2.3% of the total population) and one more sensitive to thermal stress (97.7% of the total population). The thermal sensitivity of the bacteria depends on the fat content of the chicken meat. From an adapted version of the Bigelow secondary model including both temperature and fat content, 90% of the Salmonella population can be inactivated after heating at 60 °C of chicken breast, thigh muscles, wings, and skin during approximately 2.5, 5.0, 9.5, and 57.4 min, respectively. The resulting model was applied to four different non-isothermal temperature profiles regarding Salmonella growth in chicken meat. Model performance for the non-isothermal profiles was evaluated by the acceptable prediction zone concept. Results showed that >80% of the predictions fell in the acceptable prediction zone when the temperature changes smoothly at temperature rates lower than 20 °C/min. Results obtained can be used in risk assessment models regarding contamination with Salmonella spp. in chicken parts with different fat contents.
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19
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Al-Sakkaf A. Thermal inactivation and kinetic parameters for Campylobacter jejuni on chicken skin. Can J Microbiol 2021; 67:623-638. [PMID: 33529082 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2020-0543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
New Zealand has a higher reported incidence rate of campylobacteriosis than other developed countries. It has been suggested that this may be due to the emergence of heat-resistant strains that can survive normal cooking. To test this, typed Campylobacter strains ST474 and ST48 were inoculated onto slices of chicken skin <18 mm in diameter and 4 mm thick using a pipette, and placed in a special aluminium cell, which was heated to a predetermined temperature (in the range of 56.5 to 65 °C) using a temperature-controlled water bath. Survivor curves were plotted, and GlnaFit software was chosen to fit the experimental data; inactivation parameters were estimated using 1-step and 2-step regression. The D values and z values were in the range of 3-6 s and 8-11 °C, respectively. The D values at 60 and 56 °C were in the range of 12-41 s. These D values are in general agreement with previously published reports. Thus, New Zealand's higher reported rate of campylobacteriosis is possibly due to factors other than the emergence of heat-resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Al-Sakkaf
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.,Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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20
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Hakeem MJ, Lu X. Survival and Control of Campylobacter in Poultry Production Environment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:615049. [PMID: 33585282 PMCID: PMC7879573 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.615049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter species are Gram-negative, motile, and non-spore-forming bacteria with a unique helical shape that changes to filamentous or coccoid as an adaptive response to environmental stresses. The relatively small genome (1.6 Mbp) of Campylobacter with unique cellular and molecular physiology is only understood to a limited extent. The overall strict requirement of this fastidious microorganism to be either isolated or cultivated in the laboratory settings make itself to appear as a weak survivor and/or an easy target to be inactivated in the surrounding environment of poultry farms, such as soil, water source, dust, surfaces and air. The survival of this obligate microaerobic bacterium from poultry farms to slaughterhouses and the final poultry products indicates that Campylobacter has several adaptive responses and/or environmental niches throughout the poultry production chain. Many of these adaptive responses remain puzzles. No single control method is yet known to fully address Campylobacter contamination in the poultry industry and new intervention strategies are required. The aim of this review article is to discuss the transmission, survival, and adaptation of Campylobacter species in the poultry production environments. Some approved and novel control methods against Campylobacter species throughout the poultry production chain will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed J Hakeem
- Food, Nutrition and Health Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Xiaonan Lu
- Food, Nutrition and Health Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada
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21
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Ben Romdhane R, Merle R. The Data Behind Risk Analysis of Campylobacter Jejuni and Campylobacter Coli Infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 431:25-58. [PMID: 33620647 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-65481-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are major causes of food-borne enteritis in humans. Poultry meat is known to be responsible for a large proportion of cases of human campylobacteriosis. However, other food-borne, environmental and animal sources are frequently associated with the disease in humans as well. Human campylobacteriosis causes gastroenteritis that in most cases is self-limiting. Nevertheless, the burden of the disease is relatively large compared with other food-borne diseases, which is mostly due to rare but long-lasting symptoms related to immunological sequelae. In order to pave the way to improved surveillance and control of human campylobacteriosis, we review here the data that is typically used for risk analysis to quantify the risk and disease burden, identify specific surveillance strategies and assist in choosing the most effective control strategies. Such data are mostly collected from the literature, and their nature is discussed here, for each of the three processes that are essential for a complete risk analysis procedure: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Of these, the first, risk assessment, is most dependent on data, and this process is subdivided into the steps of hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment and risk characterization. For each of these steps of risk assessment, information from published material that is typically collected will be summarized here. In addition, surveillance data are highly valuable for risk assessments. Different surveillance systems are employed in different countries, which can make international comparison of data challenging. Risk analysis typically results in targeted control strategies, and these again differ between countries. The applied control strategies are as yet not sufficient to eradicate human campylobacteriosis. The surveillance tools of Campylobacter in humans and exposure sources in place in different countries are briefly reviewed to better understand the Campylobacter dynamics and guide control strategies. Finally, the available control measures on different risk factors and exposure sources are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Racem Ben Romdhane
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roswitha Merle
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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22
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AGIRDEMIR O, YURDAKUL O, KEYVAN E, SEN E. Effects of various chemical decontaminants on Salmonella Typhimurium survival in chicken carcasses. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.02920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Erdi SEN
- Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey
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23
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Alter T, Reich F. Management Strategies for Prevention of Campylobacter Infections Through the Poultry Food Chain: A European Perspective. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 431:79-102. [PMID: 33620649 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-65481-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
Numerous studies point out that at present, a complete elimination of Campylobacter species in the poultry food chain is not feasible. Thus, the current aim should be to establish control measures and intervention strategies to minimize the occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in livestock (esp. poultry flocks) and to reduce the quantitative Campylobacter burden along the food chain in animals and subsequently in foods. The most effective measures to mitigate Campylobacter focus on the primary production stage. Nevertheless, measures applied during slaughter and processing complement the general meat hygiene approaches by reducing fecal contamination during slaughtering and processing and as a consequence help to reduce Campylobacter in poultry meat. Such intervention measures at slaughter and processing level would include general hygienic improvements, technological innovations and/or decontamination measures that are applied at single slaughter or processing steps. In particular, approaches that do not focus on a single intervention measure would need to be based on a thorough process of evaluation, and potential combinatory effects have to be modeled and tested. Finally, the education of all stakeholders (including retailers, food handlers and consumers) is required and will help to increase awareness for the presence of foodborne pathogens in raw meat and meat products and can thus aid in the development of the required good kitchen hygiene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Alter
- Center for Veterinary Public Health, Institute of Food Safety and Food Hygiene, Free University Berlin, Koenigsweg 69, Berlin, 14163, Germany.
| | - Felix Reich
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, Berlin, 10589, Germany
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24
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Zhang X, Peng Z, Li P, Mao Y, Shen R, Tao R, Diao X, Liu L, Zhao Y, Luo X. Complex Internal Microstructure of Feather Follicles on Chicken Skin Promotes the Bacterial Cross-Contamination of Carcasses During the Slaughtering Process. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:571913. [PMID: 33042079 PMCID: PMC7527466 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.571913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chicken skin is considered the most susceptible to bacterial contamination during slaughter. It is rich in bushy feather follicles with complex internal structures that can absorb bacteria via cross-contamination during slaughter. Until now, the microstructural changes and local bacterial composition of feather follicles during slaughter have not been thoroughly investigated. This study used hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining of the tissue paraffin section to investigate the structure of the feather follicles on chicken skin. In addition, the biopsy sampling method was employed for the high-throughput sequencing of 16S RNA genes to study the composition and source of bacterial contamination during slaughter. The results show that the feather follicles on chicken skin form a closed cavity structure during the slaughtering process. The volume of the irregular follicle cavity was about Ø: 200 μm × D: 1040 μm, which provides a place for the bacteria to absorb and resist the cleaning and disinfection during the slaughtering process. The composition of bacteria in the feather follicle was mainly Acinetobacter (37%), Psychrobacter (8%), Macrococcus (5%), and Comamonas (2%). The heat map obtained via the species abundance analysis of the feather follicle samples as well as the slaughter environment samples suggests that the gastrointestinal feces contaminated the feather follicles on the chicken skin mainly during the evisceration, defeathering, and chilling processes, and the last-stage chilling water also caused severe cross-contamination to the feather follicles during the chilling process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xibin Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China.,New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Zixin Peng
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yanwei Mao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Ru Shen
- New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Rui Tao
- New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Xiuguo Diao
- New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Longhai Liu
- New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Yuzhong Zhao
- New Hope Liuhe Co., Ltd., Laboratory of Feed and Livestock and Poultry Products Quality & Safety Control, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Luo
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
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25
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Galarneau KD, Singer RS, Wills RW. A system dynamics model for disease management in poultry production. Poult Sci 2020; 99:5547-5559. [PMID: 33142472 PMCID: PMC7647849 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this article was to provide the nonmodeler reader of Poultry Science, an overview of the system dynamics modeling method (SDM) through development of a broiler house disease management simulator (BHDMS). System dynamics modeling uses feedback theory and computer-aided simulation to help elucidate relationships between factors in complex systems, which may be circular or interrupted with long delays. Materials used to build the simulator include data from literature and industry indices. The methods used were the steps in SDM, namely: 1) Identify the problem and boundaries; 2) develop a dynamic hypothesis explaining cause of the problem; 3) build the causal loop diagram (CLD); 4) develop the stock and flow model; 5) conduct model simulations; and 6) model validation. Results presented here are the CLD and stock and flow model of the simulator, results of scenario simulations, and model validity tests. The simulator consists of the main model, the disease submodel, and the antimicrobial use submodel. The main model represents a cycle of production in the broiler house of a specified length of time, which repeats after a specified down time. The disease submodel shows population dynamics in the broiler house in terms of changes over time in number of susceptible, infected, recovered, and dead birds. Production parameters that could be modified in the model include delivery size, grow-out period, down time, and efficacy of antimicrobials. Disease mortality levels, above the set threshold, trigger antimicrobial use in the model. The model showed the effect of antimicrobial use intervention on the population dynamics, namely, on the proportion of the susceptible, infected, recovered, and dead birds in the population. Thus, the BHDMS was able to simulate the effect of the intervention on population dynamics and would facilitate evaluating management interventions such as antimicrobial use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen D Galarneau
- Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762-6100, USA
| | - Randall S Singer
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Robert W Wills
- Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762-6100, USA.
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26
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Rincon A, Kumar S, Ritz CW, Jackson JS, Jackson CR, Frye JG, Hinton A, Singh M, Cosby DE, Cox NA, Thippareddi H. Antimicrobial interventions to reduce Salmonella and Campylobacter populations and improve shelf life of quail carcasses. Poult Sci 2020; 99:5977-5982. [PMID: 33142515 PMCID: PMC7647711 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Quail (Coturnix japonica) is processed and marketed as fresh meat, with limited shelf life. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial interventions during slaughter on reducing Salmonella and Campylobacter contamination and to determine the microbiological shelf life of quail during refrigerated (4°C) storage. Three antimicrobials, peracetic acid (400 ppm; PAA), Citrilow (pH 1.2), and Cecure (cetylpyridinium chloride [CPC], 450 ppm), along with a water and no-treatment control were evaluated. Quail carcasses (n = 75) were inoculated with a cocktail of nalidixic acid–resistant Salmonella Typhimurium and gentamicin-resistant Campylobacter coli. After 30 min of attachment time, quail carcasses were submerged in each antimicrobial solution for 20 s with air agitation. Noninoculated quail carcasses (n = 25) were similarly treated, packaged, and stored under refrigeration (4°C). Aerobic plate counts (APC), psychrotroph counts (PC), Enterobacteriaceae counts (ENT), total coliform counts (TCC), and Escherichia coli counts on quail carcasses were determined on 1, 4, 7, and 10 d. Salmonella and Campylobacter populations were determined by plating on Petrifilm APC supplemented with 200-ppm nalidixic acid and Campy Cefex agar supplemented with 200-ppm gentamycin, respectively. No significant reductions in (P > 0.01 log cfu/mL) in APC, PC, ENT, TCC, and E. coli counts were observed on carcasses submerged in water. However, treatments with PAA, Citrilow, and CPC significantly reduced (P ≤ 0.05) Salmonella and Campylobacter coli contamination. Citrilow showed greater (P ≤ 0.05) reduction in Salmonella and Campylobacter population (1.90 and 3.82 log cfu/mL reduction, respectively) to PAA and CPC. Greater (P ≤ 0.05) reductions in APC, PC, ENT, TCC, and E. coli counts (2.22, 1.26, 1.47, 1.52, and 1.59 log cfu/mL, respectively) were obtained with the application of CPC. Application of antimicrobial interventions resulted in a reduction in Campylobacter and Salmonella, APC, PC, and ENT populations after treatments (day 0) and throughout the storage period (day 10). Use of antimicrobial interventions after slaughter can improve the microbiological safety and shelf life of quail.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rincon
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - S Kumar
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - C W Ritz
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - J S Jackson
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - C R Jackson
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - J G Frye
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - A Hinton
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - M Singh
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - D E Cosby
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - N A Cox
- United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - H Thippareddi
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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27
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Rhouma M, Romero-Barrios P, Gaucher ML, Bhachoo S. Antimicrobial resistance associated with the use of antimicrobial processing aids during poultry processing operations: cause for concern? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 61:3279-3296. [PMID: 32744054 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1798345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance has become a global issue and a threat to human and animal health. Contamination of poultry carcasses with meat-borne pathogens represents both an economic and a public health concern. The use of antimicrobial processing aids (APA) during poultry processing has contributed to an improvement in the microbiological quality of poultry carcasses. However, the extensive use of these decontaminants has raised concerns about their possible role in the co-selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This topic is presented in the current review to provide an update on the information related to bacterial adaptation to APA used in poultry processing establishments, and to discuss the relationship between APA bacterial adaptation and the acquisition of a new resistance phenotype to therapeutic antimicrobials by bacteria. Common mechanisms such as active efflux and changes in membrane fluidity are the most documented mechanisms responsible for bacterial cross-resistance to APA and antimicrobials. Although most studies reported a bacterial resistance to antibiotics not reaching a clinical level, the under-exposure of bacteria to APA remains a concern in the poultry industry. Further research is needed to determine if APA used during poultry processing and therapeutic antimicrobials share common sites of action in bacteria and encounter similar mechanisms of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Rhouma
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, St-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Marie-Lou Gaucher
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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28
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Joo H, Mizan MFR, Hossain MI, Lee D, Ha S. Enhanced elimination of
Salmonella
Typhimurium and
Campylobacter jejuni
on chicken skin by sequential exposure to ultrasound and peroxyacetic acid. J Food Saf 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun‐Jung Joo
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Advanced Food Safety Research GroupChung‐Ang University Anseong Gyunggido Republic of Korea
| | - Md. Furkanur Rahaman Mizan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Advanced Food Safety Research GroupChung‐Ang University Anseong Gyunggido Republic of Korea
| | - Md. Iqbal Hossain
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Advanced Food Safety Research GroupChung‐Ang University Anseong Gyunggido Republic of Korea
| | - Dong‐Un Lee
- Department of Food Science and TechnologyChung‐Ang University Anseong Gyunggido Republic of Korea
| | - Sang‐Do Ha
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Advanced Food Safety Research GroupChung‐Ang University Anseong Gyunggido Republic of Korea
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29
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Soro AB, Whyte P, Bolton DJ, Tiwari BK. Strategies and novel technologies to control Campylobacter in the poultry chain: A review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:1353-1377. [PMID: 33337085 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common bacterial infections worldwide causing economic costs. The high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat is a result of several contamination and cross-contamination sources through the production chain. Moreover, survival mechanisms, such as biofilm formation, viable but nonculturable state, and antimicrobial resistance, enable its persistence during food processing. Therefore, mitigation strategies are necessary in order to avoid and/or inactivate Campylobacter at farm, abattoir, industry, and retail level. In this review, a number of potential strategies and novel technologies that could reduce the prevalence of Campylobacter in poultry meat have been identified and evaluated to provide a useful overview. At farm level for instance, biosecurity, bacteriocins, probiotics, feed and water additives, bacteriophages, and vaccination could potentially reduce colonization in chicken flocks. However, current technologies used in the chicken slaughter and processing industry may be less effective against this foodborne pathogen. Novel technologies and strategies such as cold plasma, ultraviolet light, high-intensity light pulses, pulsed electric fields, antimicrobials, and modified atmosphere packaging are discussed in this review for reducing Campylobacter contamination. Although these measures have achieved promising results, most have not been integrated within processing operations due to a lack of knowledge or an unwillingness to implement these into existing processing systems. Furthermore, a combination of existing and novel strategies might be required to decrease the prevalence of this pathogen in poultry meat and enhance food safety. Therefore, further research will be essential to assess the effectiveness of all these strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo B Soro
- Department of Food Chemistry and Technology, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Ireland.,UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland
| | - Paul Whyte
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland
| | - Declan J Bolton
- Department of Food Safety, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Ireland
| | - Brijesh K Tiwari
- Department of Food Chemistry and Technology, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Ireland
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30
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McCarthy Z, Smith B, Fazil A, Ryan SD, Wu J, Munther D. An individual-carcass model for quantifying bacterial cross-contamination in an industrial three-stage poultry scalding tank. J FOOD ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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31
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Carson C, Li XZ, Agunos A, Loest D, Chapman B, Finley R, Mehrotra M, Sherk LM, Gaumond R, Irwin R. Ceftiofur-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg of poultry origin - a risk profile using the Codex framework. Epidemiol Infect 2019; 147:e296. [PMID: 31679543 PMCID: PMC6836576 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268819001778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Codex published the 'Guidelines for Risk Analysis of Foodborne Antimicrobial Resistance' to standardise the approach for evaluating risk posed by foodborne antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. One of the first steps in the guidelines is to compile a risk profile, which provides the current state of knowledge regarding a food safety issue, describes risk management options and recommends next steps. In Canada, ceftiofur/ceftriaxone-resistant Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Heidelberg from poultry was identified as an antimicrobial resistance (AMR) food safety issue. The first objective of this article was to contextualise this food safety issue, using the risk profile format of the Codex Guidelines. A second objective was to evaluate the applicability of the Codex Guidelines. This risk profile indicated that ceftiofur/ceftriaxone-resistant S. Heidelberg (CSH) was commonly isolated from poultry and was associated with severe disease in humans. Ceftiofur use in poultry hatcheries temporally mirrored the prevalence of CSH from poultry meat at retail and from people with salmonellosis. The evidence was sufficient to indicate the need for risk management options, such as restricting the use of ceftiofur in poultry. The Codex Guidelines provided a useful approach to summarise data for decision-makers to evaluate an AMR food safety issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolee Carson
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xian-Zhi Li
- Veterinary Drugs Directorate, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Agnes Agunos
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daleen Loest
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brennan Chapman
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rita Finley
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Manisha Mehrotra
- Veterinary Drugs Directorate, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Réjean Gaumond
- Market and Industry Services Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rebecca Irwin
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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32
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Xiao X, Wang W, Zhang J, Liao M, Yang H, Fang W, Li Y. Modeling the Reduction and Cross-Contamination of Salmonella in Poultry Chilling Process in China. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E448. [PMID: 31614953 PMCID: PMC6843316 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7100448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
: The study was to establish a predictive model for reduction and cross-contamination of Salmonella on chicken in chilling process. Reduction of Salmonella on chicken was 0.75 ± 0.04, 0.74 ± 0.08, and 0.79 ± 0.07 log CFU/g with 20, 50, and 100 mg/L of chlorine, respectively. No significant differences of bacterial reductions with 20-100 mg/L of chlorine were found and a Normal (-0.75, 0.1) distribution could describe the uncertainty of bacterial reductions. Inoculated and non-inoculated chicken samples were washed together and bacterial transfer rates among them were 0.13%-0.004% with 20-100 mg/L of chlorine. No significant differences of transfer rates with 50-100 mg/L of chlorine were observed and a Triangle (-2.5, -1.5, -1.1) distribution could describe the log transfer rate. Additionally, a 3-factor response surface model based on the central composite design was developed to evaluate the effects of initial contamination level (1-5 log CFU/g), pre-chill incidence (3%-40%) and chlorine concentration (0-100 mg/L) on post-chill incidence. The post-chill incidences in these treatments were within 30%-91.7%. The developed model showed a satisfactory performance to predict the post-chill incidence as evidenced by statistical indices (pseudo-R2 = 0.9; p < 0.0001; RMSE = 0.21) and external validation parameters (Bf = 1.02; Af = 1.11).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingning Xiao
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
- State Key Laboratory for Quality and Safety of Agro-products, MOA Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Hangzhou), Institute of Quality and Standard of Agricultural Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China.
| | - Wen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Quality and Safety of Agro-products, MOA Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Hangzhou), Institute of Quality and Standard of Agricultural Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China.
| | - Jianmin Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Ming Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Quality and Safety of Agro-products, MOA Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Hangzhou), Institute of Quality and Standard of Agricultural Products, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China.
| | - Weihuan Fang
- College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Yanbin Li
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
- Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, A.R. 72701, USA.
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33
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Cox NA, Berrang ME, House SL, Medina D, Cook KL, Shariat NW. Population Analyses Reveal Preenrichment Method and Selective Enrichment Media Affect Salmonella Serovars Detected on Broiler Carcasses. J Food Prot 2019; 82:1688-1696. [PMID: 31536420 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-19-166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Poultry is a major Salmonella reservoir, but conventional culture-based methods typically identify the most abundant serovars while those less abundant remain undetected. Choice of enrichment procedure also introduces bias, and for broiler carcasses, a 1-min rinse before preenrichment is insufficient to release all Salmonella present. The inability to assess serovar diversity means that serovars more often associated with human illness may be masked by more abundant Salmonella. CRISPR-SeroSeq (serotyping by sequencing clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats), an amplicon-based, next-generation sequencing tool, allows detection of multiple serovars and maps the relative serovar frequencies in a sample. To address the preceding limitations, CRISPR-SeroSeq was used on broiler carcasses collected prechilled at a commercial plant. Standard carcass rinse aliquot preenrichments and whole carcass preenrichments that were enriched in Rappaport-Vassiliadis (RV) and tetrathionate (TT) broths were compared. On average, five serovars were observed per carcass, including nine on one carcass. CRISPR-SeroSeq detected serovars comprising as little as 0.005% of the population. CRISPR-SeroSeq data matched (28 of 32) standard culture analysis for abundant serovars. Salmonella serovars Kentucky, Typhimurium, and Schwarzengrund were found on each carcass. Overall, serovar diversity was higher in whole carcass preenrichments that were enriched in RV (P < 0.05). Serovar Schwarzengrund was present at higher frequencies in whole carcass preenrichments compared with rinse aliquot preenrichments (t test, P < 0.05), suggesting it adheres more strongly to the carcass. Salmonella serovar Enteritidis was enriched eightfold more in TT than in RV, and serovars Schwarzengrund and Reading were preferentially enriched in RV. Comparison of preenriched and enriched samples suggests that selective enrichment in RV or TT was inhibitory to some serovars. This article addresses limitations of Salmonella surveillance protocols and provides information related to Salmonella population dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson A Cox
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, Georgia 30605
| | - Mark E Berrang
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, Georgia 30605
| | - Sandra L House
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Athens, Georgia 30605
| | - David Medina
- Biology Department, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 17325
| | - Kimberly L Cook
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - Nikki W Shariat
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3943-4829 [N.W.S.])
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34
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Campylobacter heat resistance - past, current status and future prospect for New Zealand and beyond. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/s0043933915000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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35
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Fries R. Reducing Salmonella transfer during industrial poultry meat production. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2019. [DOI: 10.1079/wps20020038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. Fries
- Institute of Meat Hygiene and Technology, Free University of Berlin, Brümmerstr. 10, 14195 Berlin, Germany,
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36
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González RJ, Sampedro F, Feirtag JM, Sánchez-Plata MX, Hedberg CW. Prioritization of Chicken Meat Processing Interventions on the Basis of Reducing the Salmonella Residual Relative Risk. J Food Prot 2019; 82:1575-1582. [PMID: 31433239 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-19-033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Protecting public health by controlling Salmonella in chicken meat products continues to be a challenge to both industry and policymakers. Studies evaluating the combined use of commercially available antimicrobial interventions are scarce. The aim of this work was to develop a risk-based prioritization framework to rank chicken meat processing interventions that achieve the greatest Salmonella relative risk reduction. A baseline model characterizing the current U.S. broiler industry food safety intervention practices was created from direct observation of processes and expert elicitation. Results showed the combination of chlorine at the bird wash station and peroxyacetic acid at the on-line reprocessing and chill stages as the most common U.S. processing scenario. Irradiation at packaging and acidified sodium chlorite at evisceration were the most effective single processing interventions (98.8 and 91.6% risk reduction, respectively); however, no single intervention was able to comply with the current Food Safety and Inspection Service Salmonella postchill performance standards. The combination of peroxyacetic acid in at least one of the chicken processing stages with the current set of U.S. baseline interventions achieved >99% Salmonella relative risk reduction and ensured Food Safety and Inspection Service compliance. Adding more than one intervention to the U.S. current practice did not enhance (<2%) the overall Salmonella risk reduction. This study can help poultry processors to prioritize food safety interventions to maximize Salmonella reduction and public health protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolando J González
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, 1334 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Fernando Sampedro
- School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1155-2751 [F.S.])
| | - Joellen M Feirtag
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, 1334 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Marcos X Sánchez-Plata
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Box 42141, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
| | - Craig W Hedberg
- School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street S.E., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1155-2751 [F.S.])
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37
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Modeling the Reduction of Salmonella spp. on Chicken Breasts and Wingettes during Scalding for QMRA of the Poultry Supply Chain in China. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7060165. [PMID: 31174317 PMCID: PMC6617264 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7060165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to develop predictive models for describing the inoculated Salmonella reductions on chicken during the scalding process in China. Salmonella reductions on chicken breasts at a 100 s treatment were 1.12 ± 0.07, 1.38 ± 0.01, and 2.17 ± 0.11 log CFU/g at scalding temperatures of 50, 60 and 70 °C, respectively. For chicken wingettes, 0.87 ± 0.02, 0.99 ± 0.14 and 1.11 ± 0.17 log CFU/g reductions were obtained at 50, 60 and 70 °C after the 100 s treatment, respectively. Greater bacterial reductions were observed on chicken breasts than on chicken wingettes (p < 0.05). A logistic (−1.12, 0.06) distribution could describe the bacterial reductions on chicken breasts at 50–60 °C. Weibull, exponential and log-linear models were compared for describing the bacterial reduction on chicken breasts at 70 °C and the Weibull model showed the best fit as indicated by the pseudo-R2, root mean square error (RMSE) and standard error of prediction (SEP) values. For chicken wingettes, a logistic (−0.95, 0.07) distribution could be used to describe the bacterial reduction at 50–70 °C. The developed predictive models could provide parts of the input data for microbial risk assessment of the poultry supply chain in China.
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38
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Zhang L, Ren T, Qiao M, Huang TS, Xia X. The reduction of Salmonella on chicken skin by the combination of sodium dodecyl sulfate with antimicrobial chemicals and coating wax microemulsions. Poult Sci 2019; 98:2615-2621. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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39
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Harrand AS, Kovac J, Carroll LM, Guariglia-Oropeza V, Kent DJ, Wiedmann M. Assembly and Characterization of a Pathogen Strain Collection for Produce Safety Applications: Pre-growth Conditions Have a Larger Effect on Peroxyacetic Acid Tolerance Than Strain Diversity. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1223. [PMID: 31231329 PMCID: PMC6558390 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective control of foodborne pathogens on produce requires science-based validation of interventions and control strategies, which typically involves challenge studies with a set of bacterial strains representing the target pathogens or appropriate surrogates. In order to facilitate these types of studies, a produce-relevant strain collection was assembled to represent strains from produce outbreaks or pre-harvest environments, including Listeria monocytogenes (n = 11), Salmonella enterica (n = 23), shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) (n = 13), and possible surrogate organisms (n = 8); all strains were characterized by whole genome sequencing (WGS). Strain diversity was assured by including the 10 most common S. enterica serotypes, L. monocytogenes lineages I-IV, and E. coli O157 as well as selected "non-O157" STEC serotypes. As it has previously been shown that strains and genetic lineages of a pathogen may differ in their ability to survive different stress conditions, a subset of representative strains for each "pathogen group" (e.g., Salmonella, STEC) was selected and assessed for survival of exposure to peroxyacetic acid (PAA) using strains pre-grown under different conditions including (i) low pH, (ii) high salt, (iii) reduced water activity, (iv) different growth phases, (v) minimal medium, and (vi) different temperatures (21°C, 37°C). The results showed that across the three pathogen groups pre-growth conditions had a larger effect on bacterial reduction after PAA exposure as compared to strain diversity. Interestingly, bacteria exposed to salt stress (4.5% NaCl) consistently showed the least reduction after exposure to PAA; however, for STEC, strains pre-grown at 21°C were as tolerant to PAA exposure as strains pre-grown under salt stress. Overall, our data suggests that challenge studies conducted with multi-strain cocktails (pre-grown under a single specific condition) may not necessarily reflect the relevant phenotypic range needed to appropriately assess different intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jasna Kovac
- Department of Food Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Laura M. Carroll
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | | | - David J. Kent
- Department of Statistical Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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40
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Foods NACOMCF. Response to Questions Posed by the Food Safety and Inspection Service Regarding Salmonella Control Strategies in Poultry †. J Food Prot 2019; 82:645-668. [PMID: 30917043 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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41
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Perez-Arnedo I, Gonzalez-Fandos E. Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in Poultry in Three Spanish Farms, A Slaughterhouse and A Further Processing Plant. Foods 2019; 8:E111. [PMID: 30917510 PMCID: PMC6463054 DOI: 10.3390/foods8030111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in a selection of poultry flocks and the corresponding broiler carcasses as well as the possible impact of contamination during slaughter and processing. Samples of the same flock at different ages in three farms (A, B and C) were taken for the determination of Campylobacter spp. The same broiler flocks were examined at different stages of one slaughterhouse and at a further processing plant. The slaughterhouse environment and processing equipment were sampled. Campylobacter spp. was not detected in 7 and 14-day-old broilers in any of the three farms studied. However, Campylobacter spp. was detected in 35 and 42-day-old broilers at two farms (Farm A and B). This pathogen was detected in both dirty and clean transport crates, in scalding water, and on the defeathering machine and the working table at the end of the working day, but not at the beginning. After defeathering, Campylobacter spp. was detected in all of the sampled carcasses. Campylobacter spp. was detected in all of the carcasses and the poultry meat portion samples from Farm C, although it was not detected at the farm level. This suggests that Campylobacter spp. infected flocks may be a source of these bacteria in the corresponding carcasses, but a cross-contamination during the transportation and slaughter process is also very important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iratxe Perez-Arnedo
- Food Technology Department, CIVA Research Center, University of La Rioja, 26006 La Rioja, Spain.
| | - Elena Gonzalez-Fandos
- Food Technology Department, CIVA Research Center, University of La Rioja, 26006 La Rioja, Spain.
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42
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Rimet CS, Maurer JJ, Pickler L, Stabler L, Johnson KK, Berghaus RD, Villegas AM, Lee M, França M. Salmonella Harborage Sites in Infected Poultry That May Contribute to Contamination of Ground Meat. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2019.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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43
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Ricke SC, Feye KM, Chaney WE, Shi Z, Pavlidis H, Yang Y. Developments in Rapid Detection Methods for the Detection of Foodborne Campylobacter in the United States. Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3280. [PMID: 30728816 PMCID: PMC6351486 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The accurate and rapid detection of Campylobacter spp. is critical for optimal surveillance throughout poultry processing in the United States. The further development of highly specific and sensitive assays to detect Campylobacter in poultry matrices has tremendous utility and potential for aiding the reduction of foodborne illness. The introduction and development of molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have enhanced the diagnostic capabilities of the food industry to identify the presence of foodborne pathogens throughout poultry production. Further innovations in various methodologies, such as immune-based typing and detection as well as high throughput analyses, will provide important epidemiological data such as the identification of unique or region-specific Campylobacter. Comparable to traditional microbiology and enrichment techniques, molecular techniques/methods have the potential to have improved sensitivity and specificity, as well as speed of data acquisition. This review will focus on the development and application of rapid molecular methods for identifying and quantifying Campylobacter in U.S. poultry and the emergence of novel methods that are faster and more precise than traditional microbiological techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C. Ricke
- Department of Food Science, Center of Food Safety, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Kristina M. Feye
- Department of Food Science, Center of Food Safety, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | | | - Zhaohao Shi
- Department of Food Science, Center of Food Safety, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | | | - Yichao Yang
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
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44
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Yeh HY, Kojima K, Mobley JA. Epitope mapping of Salmonella flagellar hook-associated protein, FlgK, with mass spectrometry-based immuno-capture proteomics using chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) sera. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2018; 201:20-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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45
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Incili GK, Çalicioğlu M. Change in scalding fluids by time in poultry slaughterhouse and its effect on microbiological quality of carcasses. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gökhan Kürşad Incili
- Department of Food Hygiene and Technology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Elazığ Turkey
| | - Mehmet Çalicioğlu
- Department of Food Hygiene and Technology; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Elazığ Turkey
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46
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McCarthy Z, Smith B, Fazil A, Wu J, Ryan SD, Munther D. pH dependent C. jejuni thermal inactivation models and application to poultry scalding. J FOOD ENG 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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47
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Main Groups of Microorganisms of Relevance for Food Safety and Stability. INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOOD PRESERVATION 2018. [PMCID: PMC7150063 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-811031-7.00003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microbiology is important to food safety, production, processing, preservation, and storage. Microbes such as bacteria, molds, and yeasts are employed for the foods production and food ingredients such as production of wine, beer, bakery, and dairy products. On the other hand, the growth and contamination of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms is considered as one of the main causes to loss of foodstuff nowadays. Although technology, hygienic strategies, and traceability are important factors to prevent and delay microbial growth and contamination, food remains susceptible to spoilage and activity of pathogen microorganisms. Food loss by either spoilage or contaminated food affects food industry and consumers leading to economic losses and increased hospitalization costs. This chapter focuses on general aspects, characteristics, and importance of main microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, molds, virus, and parasites) involved in food spoilage or contamination: known and recently discovered species; defects and alterations in foodstuff; most common food associated with each foodborne disease; resistance to thermal processing; occurrence in different countries; outbreaks; and associated symptoms.
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Mohamed HM, Abdel-Naeem HH. Enhancing the bactericidal efficacy of lactic acid against Salmonella typhimurium attached to chicken skin by sodium dodecyl sulphate addition. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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49
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Nair DVT, Kollanoor Johny A. Food Grade Pimenta Leaf Essential Oil Reduces the Attachment of Salmonella enterica Heidelberg (2011 Ground Turkey Outbreak Isolate) on to Turkey Skin. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2328. [PMID: 29234313 PMCID: PMC5712355 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella attached to the poultry skin is a major source of carcass contamination during processing. Once attached to the poultry skin, it is difficult to detach and inactivate Salmonella by commonly used antimicrobial agents since the pathogen is entrapped deeply in the feather follicles and the crevices on the skin. Essential oils could be natural, safe, and effective alternatives to synthetic antimicrobial agents during commercial and organic processing setup. The present study evaluated the efficacy of pimenta (Pimenta officinalis Lindl.) leaf essential oil (PEO), and its nanoemulsion in reducing Salmonella Heidelberg attachment on to turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) skin during simulated scalding (65°C) and chilling (4°C) steps in poultry processing. A multidrug resistant S. Heidelberg isolate from the 2011 ground turkey outbreak in the United States was used in the study. Results showed that PEO and the nanoemulsion resulted in significant reduction of S. Heidelberg attachment on turkey skin. Turkey skin samples treated with 1.0% PEO for 5 min resulted in >2 log10 CFU/sq. inch reduction of S. Heidelberg at 65 and 4°C, respectively (n = 6; P < 0.05). Similarly, skin samples treated with 1.0% pimenta nanoemulsion (PNE) for 5 min resulted in 1.5- and 1.8- log10 CFU/sq. inch reduction of S. Heidelberg at 65 and 4°C, respectively (n = 6; P < 0.05). In addition, PEO and PNE were effective in reducing S. Heidelberg on skin during short-term storage at 4 and 10°C (temperature abuse) (n = 6; P < 0.05). No Salmonella was detected in the dipping solution containing 0.5 or 1.0% PEO or PNE, whereas a substantial population of the pathogen survived in the control dipping solution. The results were validated using scanning electron -, and confocal - microscopy techniques. PEO or PNE could be utilized as an effective antimicrobial agent to reduce S. Heidelberg attachment to turkey skin during poultry processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anup Kollanoor Johny
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
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50
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Individual based modeling and analysis of pathogen levels in poultry chilling process. Math Biosci 2017; 294:172-180. [PMID: 29080777 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pathogen control during poultry processing critically depends on more enhanced insight into contamination dynamics. In this study we build an individual based model (IBM) of the chilling process. Quantifying the relationships between typical Canadian processing specifications, water chemistry dynamics and pathogen levels both in the chiller water and on individual carcasses, the IBM is shown to provide a useful tool for risk management as it can inform risk assessment models. We apply the IBM to Campylobacter spp. contamination on broiler carcasses, illustrating how free chlorine (FC) sanitization, organic load in the water, and pre-chill carcass pathogen levels affect pathogen levels of post-chill broilers. In particular, given a uniform distribution of Campylobacter levels on incoming poultry we quantify the efficacy of FC control in not only reducing pathogen levels on average, but also the variation of pathogen levels on poultry exiting the chill tank. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the absence/presence of FC input dramatically influences when, during a continuous chilling operation, cross-contamination will be more likely.
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