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Siddi G, Piras F, Meloni MP, Casti D, Spanu C, Pala C, Mocci AM, Piga C, Di Salvo R, De Santis E, Scarano C. Evaluation of vacuum packaging for extending the shelf life of Sardinian fermented sausage. Ital J Food Saf 2023; 12:10819. [PMID: 37405145 PMCID: PMC10316266 DOI: 10.4081/ijfs.2023.10819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Salsiccia sarda or Sardinian fermented sausage is a traditional dry-fermented sausage included in the list of traditional food products of Sardinia (Italy). At the request of some producing plants, the possibility of extending the shelf life of the vacuum-packed product up to 120 days was evaluated. Manufacturing of 90 samples, representing 3 different batches of Sardinian fermented sausage was carried out in two producing plants (A and B). In the packaged product and subsequently every 30 days for four months (T0, T30, T60, T120), the following analyses were conducted on all samples: physicochemical characteristics, total aerobic mesophilic count, Enterobacteriaceae count, detection of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., mesophilic lactic acid bacteria, and coagulase-positive Staphylococci. Moreover, surfaces in contact and surfaces not in contact with food were sampled in both producing plants. Sensory profile analysis was also performed for every analysis time. At the end of the extended shelf life, pH values were equal to 5.90±0.11 (producing plant A) and 5.61±0.29 (producing plant B). Water activity mean values at T120 were 0.894±0.02 (producing plant A) and 0.875±0.01 (producing plant B). L. monocytogenes was detected in 73.3% (33/45) of the samples from producing plant A, with mean levels of 1.12±0.76 log10 CFU/g. In producing plant B, L. monocytogenes was never detected. Enterobacteriaceae were detected in 91.1% (41/45) of samples in producing plant A with mean values of 3.15±1.21 log10 CFU/g, and in 35.5% (16/45) samples in producing plant B samples with mean values of 0.72±0.86 log10 CFU/g. Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus were never detected. Regarding environmental samples, the sites that were most contaminated by L. monocytogenes were the bagging table (contact surface) and processing room floor drains (non-contact surface) with a prevalence of 50% each (8/16 positive samples for both sampling sites). Sensory analysis results showed that at T30 the overall sensory quality was at its highest;moreover, the visual-tactile aspect, the olfactory characteristics, the gustatory aspects, and the texture showed significant differences in samples throughout the shelf life, with a decreased intensity at 120 days of storage. Overall, the quality and sensory acceptance of the vacuumpacked Sardinian fermented sausage was not affected until 120 days of shelf-life. However, the possible contamination by L. monocytogenes calls attention to the hygienic management of the entire technological process. The environmental sampling was confirmed as a useful verification tool during control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Carlo Spanu
- Veterinary Medicine Department, University of Sassari
| | | | | | - Carlo Piga
- Agris Sardegna, Regional Agency for Agricultural Research, Bonassai, Sassari, Italy
| | - Riccardo Di Salvo
- Agris Sardegna, Regional Agency for Agricultural Research, Bonassai, Sassari, Italy
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Borji S, Kadivarian S, Dashtbin S, Kooti S, Abiri R, Motamedi H, Moradi J, Rostamian M, Alvandi A. Global prevalence of Clostridioides difficile in 17,148 food samples from 2009 to 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF HEALTH, POPULATION, AND NUTRITION 2023; 42:36. [PMID: 37072805 PMCID: PMC10114346 DOI: 10.1186/s41043-023-00369-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is an important infectious pathogen, which causes mild-to-severe gastrointestinal infections by creating resistant spores and producing toxins. Spores contaminated foods might be one of the most significant transmission ways of C. difficile-associated infections. This systematic review and meta-analysis study were conducted to investigate the prevalence of C. difficile in food. METHODS Articles that published the prevalence of C. difficile in food in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were retrieved using selected keywords between January 2009 and December 2019. Finally, 17,148 food samples from 60 studies from 20 countries were evaluated. RESULTS The overall prevalence of C. difficile in various foods was 6.3%. The highest and lowest levels of C. difficile contamination were detected to seafood (10.3%) and side dishes (0.8%), respectively. The prevalence of C. difficile was 4% in cooked food, 6.2% in cooked chicken and 10% in cooked seafood. CONCLUSIONS There is still little known concerning the food-borne impact of C. difficile, but the reported contamination might pose a public health risk. Therefore, to improve the food safety and prevent contamination with C. difficile spores, it is necessary to observe hygienic issues during foods preparation, cooking and transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soroush Borji
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sepide Kadivarian
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Shirin Dashtbin
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sara Kooti
- Behbahan Faculty of Medical Sciences, Behbahan, Iran
| | - Ramin Abiri
- Fertility and Infertility Research Center, Research Institute for Health Technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Hamid Motamedi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Jale Moradi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mosayeb Rostamian
- Infectious Diseases Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Postal Code: 6714415333, Iran.
| | - Amirhooshang Alvandi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Medical Technology Research Center, Research Institute for Health Technology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Postal Code: 6714415333, Iran.
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Prevalence, Molecular Characterization and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Clostridioides difficile Isolated from Pig Carcasses and Pork Products in Central Italy. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111368. [PMID: 34769888 PMCID: PMC8583557 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, the incidence and severity of Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) in humans have been increasing and community-associated infections have been described. For these reasons, the interest in C. difficile in food and in food animals has increased, suggesting other possible sources of C. difficile acquisition. This study evaluated the presence of C. difficile on pig carcasses at the slaughterhouse and in pork products in Central Italy. The contamination rate on pig carcasses was 4/179 (2.3%). Regarding food samples, a total of 216 pork products were tested (74 raw meat preparations and 142 ready-to-eat food samples made by cured raw meat). The real-time PCR screening was positive for 1/74 raw meat preparation (1.35%) and for 1/142 ready-to-eat food samples (0.7%) C. difficile was isolated only from the raw meat preparation (pork sausage). All the isolated strains were toxigenic and susceptible to all the tested antibiotics. Strains isolated from carcass samples displayed A+B+CDTa+CDTb+ profile, were toxinotype IV and belonged to the same ribotype arbitrary named TV93, while the one isolated from food samples displayed A+B+CDTa-CDTb- profile and it was not possible to determine ribotype and toxinotype, because it was lost after freeze storage. It was concluded that the prevalence of C. difficile in the pork supply chain is very low.
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Tsai CS, Hung YP, Lee JC, Syue LS, Hsueh PR, Ko WC. Clostridioides difficile infection: an emerging zoonosis? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19:1543-1552. [PMID: 34383624 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1967746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and one of the common infections in healthcare facilities. In recent decades, there has been an emerging threat of community-acquired CDI (CA-CDI). Environmental transmission of C. difficile in the community setting has become a major concern, and animals are an important reservoir for C. difficile causing human diseases. AREAS COVERED In this article, the molecular epidemiology of C. difficile in animals and recent evidences of zoonotic transfer to humans are reviewed based on an electronic search in the databases of PubMed and Google Scholar. EXPERT OPINION C. difficile can be found in stool from diarrheal dogs and cats; therefore, household pets could be a potential source. C. difficile will threaten human health because hypervirulent C. difficile ribotype 078 strains have been found in retail chickens, pig farms, and slaughterhouses. Risk factors for fecal C. difficile carriage in animals include young age, dietary changes, and antibiotic abuse in domestic animals. With the advent of whole genome sequencing techniques, there will be more solid evidence indicating zoonotic transfer of C. difficile from animals to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-Shiang Tsai
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Dou-Liou Branch, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Yunlin, Taiwan.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Pin Hung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Chieh Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Shan Syue
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Ren Hsueh
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chien Ko
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Abstract
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate the occurrence of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) in batches of pigs at slaughter and at different stages along the slaughter line. Nasal and ear skin swabs were collected from 105 batches of 10 pigs at six abattoirs. Cultures (pooled or individual) were performed for MRSA using selective media; presumptive MRSA were confirmed by mecA and nuc gene detection and a selection was spa-typed. MRSA was detected in 46 batches. All spa-types detected were those associated with LA-MRSA clonal complex 398. The proportion of positive batches varied among abattoirs (0–100%). Two abattoirs were subsequently further investigated, with samples taken at post-stunning, chiller and either at lairage or post-singe. Results suggested cross-contamination occurred between the lairage and point of post-stunning, but the slaughter processes appeared effective at reducing contamination before carcases entered the chiller. One abattoir provided only negative samples in the initial study and in the subsequent study along the slaughter line (26 batches in total), suggesting differences possibly in the MRSA status of pigs on arrival from supply farms or in its abattoir practices affecting the MRSA status of pigs at the sampling points. This study highlights that in the investigated abattoirs, MRSA was detected in 43.8% of batches of pigs at slaughter using sensitive selective culture methods.
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Rodriguez-Palacios A, Mo KQ, Shah BU, Msuya J, Bijedic N, Deshpande A, Ilic S. Global and Historical Distribution of Clostridioides difficile in the Human Diet (1981-2019): Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 21886 Samples Reveal Sources of Heterogeneity, High-Risk Foods, and Unexpected Higher Prevalence Toward the Tropic. Front Med (Lausanne) 2020; 7:9. [PMID: 32175321 PMCID: PMC7056907 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2020.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile (CD) is a spore-forming bacterium that causes life-threatening intestinal infections in humans. Although formerly regarded as exclusively nosocomial, there is increasing genomic evidence that person-to-person transmission accounts for only <25% of cases, supporting the culture-based hypothesis that foods may be routine sources of CD-spore ingestion in humans. To synthesize the evidence on the risk of CD exposure via foods, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies reporting the culture prevalence of CD in foods between January 1981 and November 2019. Meta-analyses, risk-ratio estimates, and meta-regression were used to estimate weighed-prevalence across studies and food types to identify laboratory and geographical sources of heterogeneity. In total, 21886 food samples were tested for CD between 1981 and 2019 (96.4%, n = 21084, 2007–2019; 232 food-sample-sets; 79 studies; 25 countries). Culture methodology, sample size and type, region, and latitude were sources of heterogeneity (p < 0.05). Although non-strictly-anaerobic methods were reported in some studies, and we confirmed experimentally that improper anaerobiosis of media/sample-handling affects CD recovery in agar (Fisher, p < 0.01), most studies (>72%) employed the same (one-of-six) culture strategy. Because the prevalence was also meta-analytically similar across six culture strategies reported, all studies were integrated using three meta-analytical methods. At the study level (n = 79), the four-decade global cumulative-prevalence of CD in the human diet was 4.1% (95%CI = −3.71, 11.91). At the food-set level (n = 232, mean 12.9 g/sample, similar across regions p > 0.2; 95%CI = 9.7–16.2), the weighted prevalence ranged between 4.5% (95%CI = 3–6%; all studies) and 8% (95%CI = 7–8%; only CD-positive-studies). Risk-ratio ranking and meta-regression showed that milk was the least likely source of CD, while seafood, leafy green vegetables, pork, and poultry carried higher risks (p < 0.05). Across regions, the risk of CD in foods for foodborne exposure reproducibly decreased with Earth latitude (p < 0.001). In conclusion, CD in the human diet is a global non-random-source of foodborne exposure that occurs independently of laboratory culture methods, across regions, and at a variable level depending on food type and latitude. The latitudinal trend (high CD-food-prevalence toward tropic) is unexpectedly inverse to the epidemiological observations of CD-infections in humans (frequent in temperate regions). Findings suggest the plausible hypothesis that ecologically-richer microbiomes in the tropic might protect against intestinal CD colonization/infections despite CD ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Rodriguez-Palacios
- Division of Gastroenterology and Liver Disease, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Digestive Health Research Institute, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Kevin Q Mo
- Human Nutrition, Department of Human Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,College of Medicine, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, United States
| | - Bhavan U Shah
- Informatics and Assessment Division, Lorain County General Health District, Elyria, OH, United States.,Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joan Msuya
- Department of Health and Nutrition, World Vision, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Nina Bijedic
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Formal Methods, Information Technologies, University Dzemal Bijedic, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.,Department of Mathematics, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Abhishek Deshpande
- Medicine Institute Center for Value-Based Care Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Sanja Ilic
- Human Nutrition, Department of Human Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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7
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Abstract
Clostridium (Clostridioides) difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that is an important cause of disease in people, a variably important cause of disease in some animal species, and an apparently harmless commensal in others. Regardless of whether it is a known pathogen in a particular species, it can also be found in healthy individuals, sometimes at high prevalences and typically with higher rates of carriage in young individuals. As it is investigated in more animal species, it is apparent that this bacterium is widely disseminated in a diverse range of domestic and wild animal species. Although it can be found in most species in which investigations have been performed, there are pronounced intra- and inter-species differences in prevalence and clinical relevance. A wide range of strains can be identified, some that appear to be animal associated and others that are found in humans and animals. A large percentage of strains that cause disease in people can at least sporadically be found in animals. It is a potentially important zoonotic pathogen, but there is limited direct evidence of animal-human transmission. Although C. difficile has been studied extensively over the past few decades, it remains an enigmatic organism in many ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology and Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada (Weese)
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8
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Clostridioides (Clostridium) Difficile in Food-Producing Animals, Horses and Household Pets: A Comprehensive Review. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120667. [PMID: 31835413 PMCID: PMC6955671 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and is also considered as a bacterium of great importance in diarrhea-associated disease for humans and different animal species. Food animals and household pets are frequently found positive for toxigenic C. difficile without exposing clinical signs of infection. Humans and animals share common C. difficile ribotypes (RTs) suggesting potential zoonotic transmission. However, the role of animals for the development of human infection due to C. difficile remains unclear. One major public health issue is the existence of asymptomatic animals that carry and shed the bacterium to the environment, and infect individuals or populations, directly or through the food chain. C. difficile ribotype 078 is frequently isolated from food animals and household pets as well as from their environment. Nevertheless, direct evidence for the transmission of this particular ribotype from animals to humans has never been established. This review will summarize the current available data on epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors and laboratory diagnosis of C. difficile infection in food animals and household pets, outline potential prevention and control strategies, and also describe the current evidence towards a zoonotic potential of C. difficile infection.
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Candel-Pérez C, Ros-Berruezo G, Martínez-Graciá C. A review of Clostridioides [Clostridium] difficile occurrence through the food chain. Food Microbiol 2019; 77:118-129. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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10
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Bandelj P, Harmanus C, Blagus R, Cotman M, Kuijper EJ, Ocepek M, Vengust M. Quantification of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile in feces of calves of different age and determination of predominant Clostridioides difficile ribotype 033 relatedness and transmission between family dairy farms using multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:298. [PMID: 30285751 PMCID: PMC6167908 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1616-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Community acquired Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CA-CDI) is a significant health problem in human and veterinary medicine. Animals are often considered as potential reservoirs for CA-CDI. In Europe, family farming is the most predominant farming operation, with a complex interaction between animals and the community. Therefore, it is pertinent to evaluate transmission patterns of C. difficile on such prominent European farming model. Fecal samples from calves (n = 2442) were collected biweekly over a period of one year on 20 mid-size family dairy farms. Environmental samples (n = 475) were collected in a three month interval. Clostridioides difficile was detected using qPCR in 243 fecal samples (243/2442); positive samples were then quantified. Association between prevalence/load of C. difficile and age of the calves was estimated with logistic regression model. Most common C. difficile isolate from calves (n = 76) and the environment (n = 14) was C. difficile ribotype 033, which was further analyzed using multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) to assess intra- and between-farm relatedness. RESULTS Clostridioides difficile was detected in feces of calves less than 24 h old. Results showed a non-linear statistically significant decrease in shedding load of C. difficile with age (P < 0.0001). A nonlinear relationship was also established between the number of calves and the farm C. difficile prevalence, whereas the prevalence of C. difficile ribotype 033 increased linearly with the number of calves. MLVA revealed close intra-farm relatedness among C. difficile ribotypes 033. It also revealed that the between-farms close relatedness of C. difficile ribotypes 033 can be a direct result of farm to farm trade of calves. CONCLUSIONS Implementation of better hygiene and management measures on farms may help decrease the risk of spreading CA-CDI between animals and the community. Trading calves older than 3 weeks would decrease the possibility C. difficile dissemination in the community because of lower prevalence and lower load of C. difficile in feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Bandelj
- 0000 0001 0721 6013grid.8954.0Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, Cesta v Mestni log 47, SI-1115 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Céline Harmanus
- 0000000089452978grid.10419.3dDepartment of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Rok Blagus
- 0000 0001 0721 6013grid.8954.0Institute for biostatistics and Medical informatics, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1104 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Cotman
- 0000 0001 0721 6013grid.8954.0Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, Cesta v Mestni log 47, SI-1115 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ed J. Kuijper
- 0000000089452978grid.10419.3dDepartment of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Matjaz Ocepek
- 0000 0001 0721 6013grid.8954.0Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, Cesta v Mestni log 47, SI-1115 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Modest Vengust
- 0000 0001 0721 6013grid.8954.0Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, Cesta v Mestni log 47, SI-1115 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Warriner K, Xu C, Habash M, Sultan S, Weese S. Dissemination ofClostridium difficilein food and the environment: Significant sources ofC. difficilecommunity-acquired infection? J Appl Microbiol 2016; 122:542-553. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Warriner
- Department of Food Science; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
| | - C. Xu
- Shanghai Ocean University; Shanghai China
| | - M. Habash
- School of Environmental Biology; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
| | - S. Sultan
- School of Environmental Biology; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
| | - S.J. Weese
- Pathobiology; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
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12
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Bandelj P, Blagus R, Briski F, Frlic O, Vergles Rataj A, Rupnik M, Ocepek M, Vengust M. Identification of risk factors influencing Clostridium difficile prevalence in middle-size dairy farms. Vet Res 2016; 47:41. [PMID: 26968527 PMCID: PMC4788955 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-016-0326-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Farm animals have been suggested to play an important role in the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in the community. The purpose of this study was to evaluate risk factors associated with C. difficile dissemination in family dairy farms, which are the most common farming model in the European Union. Environmental samples and fecal samples from cows and calves were collected repeatedly over a 1 year period on 20 mid-size family dairy farms. Clostridium difficile was detected in cattle feces on all farms using qPCR. The average prevalence between farms was 10% (0–44.4%) and 35.7% (3.7–66.7%) in cows and calves, respectively. Bacterial culture yielded 103 C. difficile isolates from cattle and 61 from the environment. Most C. difficile isolates were PCR-ribotype 033. A univariate mixed effect model analysis of risk factors associated dietary changes with increasing C. difficile prevalence in cows (P = 0.0004); and dietary changes (P = 0.004), breeding Simmental cattle (P = 0.001), mastitis (P = 0.003) and antibiotic treatment (P = 0.003) in calves. Multivariate analysis of risk factors found that dietary changes in cows (P = 0.0001) and calves (P = 0.002) increase C. difficile prevalence; mastitis was identified as a risk factor in calves (P = 0.001). This study shows that C. difficile is common on dairy farms and that shedding is more influenced by farm management than environmental factors. Based on molecular typing of C. difficile isolates, it could also be concluded that family dairy farms are currently not contributing to increased CDI incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Bandelj
- Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, cesta v Mestni log 47, 1115, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Rok Blagus
- Institute for biostatistics and Medical informatics, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, 1104, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Olga Frlic
- , Vinharje 6, 4223, Poljane nad Skofjo Loko, Slovenia
| | | | - Maja Rupnik
- National Laboratory for Health, Environment and Food, Prvomajska ulica 1, 2000, Maribor, Slovenia.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Taborska ulica 8, 2000, Maribor, Slovenia.,Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matjaz Ocepek
- Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, cesta v Mestni log 47, 1115, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Modest Vengust
- Veterinary faculty, University of Ljubljana, cesta v Mestni log 47, 1115, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Narvaez-Bravo C, Toufeer M, Weese S, Diarra M, Deckert A, Reid-Smith R, Aslam M. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
in Canadian commercial pork processing plants. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 120:770-80. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Narvaez-Bravo
- Department of Food Science; University of Manitoba; Winnipeg MB Canada
| | - M. Toufeer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; Lacombe Research Centre; Lacombe AB Canada
| | - S.J. Weese
- Department of Pathobiology; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
| | - M.S. Diarra
- Guelph Food Research Centre; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; Guelph ON Canada
| | - A.E. Deckert
- Public Health Agency of Canada; Guelph ON Canada
| | | | - M. Aslam
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; Lacombe Research Centre; Lacombe AB Canada
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15
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Fetsch A, Roesler U, Kraushaar B, Friese A. Co-colonization and clonal diversity of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in sows. Vet Microbiol 2016; 185:7-14. [PMID: 26931385 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus (S.) aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are colonizers of skin and mucosa. In humans, MSSA and MRSA compete for colonization space in the anterior nares of pig farmers; however, it was also shown that MSSA/MRSA co-colonization is common and one clone can be found rather than differing types of MSSA and MRSA. We investigated the colonization and clonality of both, MSSA and MRSA in pigs over a longer time. Eighteen sows were nasally sampled three times every ten weeks. Additionally, environmental samples were taken. Samples were investigated for MSSA and MRSA, respectively. The spa type was defined from up to five MRSA and MSSA isolates found per sample and sampling time; selected isolates were further investigated by microarray. Three sows (16.7%) were completely negative for MSSA and MRSA. Twelve pigs (66.7%) were irregularly positive for both, MSSA and MRSA over the time, whereas seven out of them (38.9%) were simultaneously colonized. CC398 (t034, t011) MRSA and CC9 (t337, t1430, and t13816) MSSA associated spa types were exclusively found. In 44.4% (n=8) of sows up to two different types of MSSA were present at the same time and sample. Strains of the same clonal lineage showed a high genetic identity despite their origin. Highly identic clones were present in sows and their environment. As conclusion, MSSA/MRSA may not exclude each other in the anterior nares of pigs. Pigs may also carry different clones at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Fetsch
- National Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-positive Staphylococci Incl. Staphylococcus aureus, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Uwe Roesler
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von Ostertag-Straße 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Britta Kraushaar
- National Reference Laboratory for Coagulase-positive Staphylococci Incl. Staphylococcus aureus, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anika Friese
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von Ostertag-Straße 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany
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Rodriguez C, Taminiau B, Van Broeck J, Delmée M, Daube G. Clostridium difficile in Food and Animals: A Comprehensive Review. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 932:65-92. [PMID: 27350639 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2016_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Zoonoses are infections or diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans through direct contact, close proximity or the environment. Clostridium difficile is ubiquitous in the environment, and the bacterium is able to colonise the intestinal tract of both animals and humans. Since domestic and food animals frequently test positive for toxigenic C. difficile, even without showing any signs of disease, it seems plausible that C. difficile could be zoonotic. Therefore, animals could play an essential role as carriers of the bacterium. In addition, the presence of the spores in different meats, fish, fruits and vegetables suggests a risk of foodborne transmission. This review summarises the current available data on C. difficile in animals and foods, from when the bacterium was first described up to the present.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rodriguez
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium.
| | - B Taminiau
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - J Van Broeck
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - M Delmée
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - G Daube
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
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Staphylococcus aureus is More Prevalent in Retail Beef Livers than in Pork and other Beef Cuts. Pathogens 2015; 4:182-98. [PMID: 25927961 PMCID: PMC4493469 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens4020182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the top five pathogens contributing to acquired foodborne illnesses causing an estimated quarter million cases every year in the US. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of Methicillin Susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and Methicillin Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in retail beef livers, beef, and pork meats sold in Tulsa, Oklahoma and to characterize the recovered strains for their virulence and antimicrobial resistance. Ninety six chilled retail beef (50 beef livers and 46 beef other cuts), and 99 pork meat samples were collected. The prevalence in beef livers was 40/50 (80%) followed by other beef cuts 23/46 (50%) then pork 43/99 (43.3%). No isolates were positive for MRSA since none harbored the mecA or mecC gene. A total of 334 recovered S. aureus isolates (143 beef livers, 76 beef, and 115 pork isolates) were screened for their antimicrobial susceptibility against 16 different antimicrobials and their possession of 18 different toxin genes. Multidrug resistance was more prevalent in the pork isolates followed by beef then beef livers. The prevalence of enterotoxin genes such as seg, seh, and sei and the toxic shock syndrome gene tst was higher in the pork isolates than in the beef ones. The hemolysin genes, particularly hlb, were more prevalent in isolates from beef livers. Molecular typing of a subset of the recovered isolates showed that they are highly diverse where spa typing was more discriminatory than PFGE. The alarmingly high incidence of S. aureus in retail beef livers in this study should raise awareness about the food safety of such meat products.
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Preliminary evaluation of good sampling locations on a pig carcass for livestock-associated MRSA isolation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 2015. [DOI: 10.1186/s40550-015-0013-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Linhares LL, Yang M, Sreevatsan S, Munoz-Zanzi CA, Torremorell M, Davies PR. The effect of anatomic site and age on detection of Staphylococcus aureus in pigs. J Vet Diagn Invest 2014; 27:55-60. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638714559598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite active research into methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in pigs since 2004, the ecology of the susceptible ancestral organism has been neglected. A longitudinal study of pigs in 2 intensive production systems was conducted to investigate the effects of age and anatomical site on detection of S. aureus. Sampling was replicated in 2 cohorts per farm, with swabs collected from the nares, tonsils, skin (axilla), and rectum in lactating sows, suckling, weaned, and market-age pigs, plus the vagina of sows. No MRSA were isolated, but S. aureus was detected in a least 1 site in 175 (91.1%) out of 192 pigs. Pig-level prevalence did not differ among the age groups, but the proportion of positive samples (all sites) was higher in market-age pigs (75.2%) and nursery-age pigs (63.2%) than in sows (40.7%) and suckling piglets (38%). Prevalence did not differ among nasal (67.9%), skin (62.3%), and tonsil (61.7%) swabs, but was lower in rectal (42%) and vaginal swabs (39.6%). Multiple multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and spa types were found in both production systems, but all isolates were of ST398, ST9, or ST5. These MLST lineages have been variably predominant among reports of MRSA in pigs on 3 continents, and the presence of methicillin-sensitive variants in several countries raises the likelihood that MRSA in pigs has likely resulted from independent acquisition of the mecA gene by multiple S. aureus lineages that have been adapted to swine over the long term, rather than recent introduction of novel clones into swine populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia L. Linhares
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
| | - My Yang
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
| | - Srinand Sreevatsan
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
| | - Claudia A. Munoz-Zanzi
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
| | - Montserrat Torremorell
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
| | - Peter R. Davies
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Linhares, Yang, Sreevatsan, Torremorell, Davies)
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (Munoz-Zanzi)
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Rodriguez C, Taminiau B, Avesani V, Van Broeck J, Delmée M, Daube G. Multilocus sequence typing analysis and antibiotic resistance of Clostridium difficile strains isolated from retail meat and humans in Belgium. Food Microbiol 2014; 42:166-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2014.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Xu C, Weese JS, Flemming C, Odumeru J, Warriner K. Fate of Clostridium difficile during wastewater treatment and incidence in Southern Ontario watersheds. J Appl Microbiol 2014; 117:891-904. [PMID: 24930867 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the prevalence of Clostridium difficile encountered during sewage treatment and in water sources into which treated effluent was directly or indirectly discharged. METHODS AND RESULTS Samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and rivers were collected and then enriched for Cl. difficile. Each of the isolates was subjected to toxinotyping and DNA typing using ribotyping, in addition to pulse-field gel electrophoresis. Cl. difficile was isolated from 92% (108/117) of the raw sludge and 96% (106/110) of the anaerobic digested sludge samples from two Ontario WWTPs. The pathogen was recovered from 73% (43/59) of dewatered biosolids and effluent discharge, in addition to river sediments 39% (25/64). Ribotype 078 (commonly associated with Community Acquired infections) was recovered from raw sewage (19%; 21/108), digested sludge (8%; 8/106), biosolids (35%; 15/43) and river sediments (60%; 15/25). CONCLUSIONS Clostridium difficile is commonly encountered in raw sewage and survives the wastewater treatment process. The pathogen can then be disseminated into the wider environment via effluent and land application of biosolids. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The study has illustrated the wide distribution of toxigenic Cl. difficile in WWTPs and river sediments although the clinical significance still requires to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Xu
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Rodriguez C, Avesani V, Van Broeck J, Taminiau B, Delmée M, Daube G. Presence of Clostridium difficile in pigs and cattle intestinal contents and carcass contamination at the slaughterhouse in Belgium. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 166:256-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Revised: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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