When Vacant Lots Become Urban Gardens: Characterizing the Perceived and Actual Food Safety Concerns of Urban Agriculture in Ohio

Measuring characteristics of wild and cultivated food environments: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Global food systems are essential to sustain life; however, unhealthy diets are the leading cause of poor health and death worldwide. Natural food environments are a critical source of healthful food such as fresh fruit and vegetables, lean meat and aquatic foods, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and Indigenous food systems. Understanding and monitoring natural food environments is critical to protecting the supply of healthy food, and the land and water it comes from, for current and future generations.

METHODS

A scoping review was applied to classify and summarise empirical methods and measures used for characterising natural food environments. The ways in which food environment characteristics are conceptualised and measured for natural (wild and cultivated) food environments were explored. Data were extracted from the included studies using the following fields: study country, aim/objective(s), type of natural food environment (wild vs. cultivated), method or measure used to measure the food environment, key food environment characteristic/s (up to four) measured and key findings in relation to the food environment measurement.

RESULTS

One hundred forty seven studies were found to be relevant in this review. Most studies investigated food environments in LMICs, with almost two-thirds of all studies focussing on middle-income countries (n = 89, 61%). There was a strong focus on food security and home-based agriculture from studies that measured the cultivated food environment in LMICs, while the majority of studies on the cultivated food environment from high-income countries focussed on urban and community gardening. In addition to the most common survey-based methodological approaches, our review yielded a broad range of both qualitative and quantitative methods for measuring natural food environments, such as geospatial analysis; biochemical analysis of food, soil and water; citizen science; photovoice and food availability calendars.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review demonstrated that the concept and characteristics of the food environment are a promising conceptualization for measuring natural food environments, particularly in relation to food availability, healthiness and food security. Mapping the currently used methods and measures to assess natural food environments is important to help identify critical leverage points for strengthening policy interventions, and monitoring and evaluation of progress.

Contextualizing toxic elements in the diet: a case for integration of toxic element data into food databases

Food composition data plays a key role in the practice of nutrition. However, nutrition professionals may currently lack the resources they need to integrate information about toxic elements - such as arsenic, cadmium, and lead - in food into the advice they give consumers. Geographic, sociocultural, and individual factors may impact not only the toxic element content of food, but also how the balance between potentially toxic and health-promoting components of food must be weighed. Better integration and contextualization of toxic element data into key food databases could allow for more nuanced, comprehensive nutrition guidance.

Potential Policy and Community Implications of Equitable Organic Waste, Compost, and Urban Agricultural Systems in the United States

BACKGROUND

Urban organic waste diverted from landfills for use as compost feedstock may help mitigate and adapt to the effects of our changing climate. Yet, compost produced from urban food and yard waste is often a source of contaminants harmful to human and environmental health. Efforts by multiple municipalities are increasing residential and commercial food and yard waste collection; however, finished, tested compost is typically unavailable to those contributing the waste and whose gardens would benefit.

OBJECTIVES

This commentary evaluates the relative equity and safety of U.S. organic waste cycles in relation to urban and peri-urban agriculture (UA) and waste stewardship. We a) explore historical structures that have led to siloed food and waste systems and b) provide recommendations to promote safer compost production from urban organic waste inputs. The engagement of intersectional partners in the creation of equitable policies and contracts that integrate food and waste justice is crucial to this work.

METHODS

A 15-y relationship between community, academic, and government partners in Boston, Massachusetts, has increased access to health-promoting community gardens. Historical concerns raised by gardeners resulted in improvement to the quality of compost sourced from municipal organic waste and motivated a case study of Boston and three other cities (Seattle, Washington; San Francisco, California; New York, New York). This case study provides the approaches used to source, collect, process, test, and deliver urban organic waste as compost for UA. It informed recommendations to improve the safety and equity of organic waste-to-compost cycles.

DISCUSSION

Strict feedstock regulation and required compost safety testing are essential to produce safe, city-sourced compost. Balancing the needs of landfill diversion with equitable distribution to all contributors, particularly low-income and food-insecure people, will help concentrate UA benefits within marginalized communities. Adoption of a public health lens may help ensure the safety of nutrient-rich compost available for urban growers through legislation at state and local levels, along with explicit industry contracts. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12921.

Remediating Garden Soils: EDTA-Soil Washing and Safe Vegetable Production in Raised Bed Gardens

Soil remediation is an important practice in the restoration of heavy metal-contaminated soils and reduce the heavy metal exposure of the local population. Here, we investigated the effect of an ex-situ soil washing technique, based on ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as a chelating agent, on a contaminated Cambisol. Lead, Cd and Zn were investigated in different soil fractions, drainage water and four vegetables from August 2019 to March 2021. Three treatments consisting of (C) contaminated soil, (W) washed soil and (WA) washed soil amended with vermicompost and biochar were investigated in an outdoor raised bed set up. Our results showed that the total and bioavailable metal fractions were significantly reduced but failed to meet Austrian national guideline values. Initial concentrations in the soil leachate increased significantly, especially for Cd. Vegetables grown on the remediated soil took up significantly lower amounts of all heavy metals and were further reduced by the organic amendment, attaining acceptable values within EU guideline values for food safety. Only spinach exceeded the thresholds in all soil treatments. The increase in soil pH and nutrient availability led to significantly higher vegetable yields.

Ensuring Urban Food Security in Malaysia during the COVID-19 Pandemic—Is Urban Farming the Answer? A Review

Urbanisation and related insufficiency of food sources is due to the high urban population, insufficient urban food sources, and inability of some urban communities to afford food due to rising costs. Food supply can also be jeopardised by natural and man-made disasters, such as warfare, pandemics, or any other calamities which result in the destruction of crop fields and disruption of food distribution. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the impact of such calamities on the fresh food supply chain in Malaysia, especially when the Movement Control Order (MCO) policy was first implemented. The resulting panic buying caused some food shortage, while more importantly, the fresh food supply chain was severely disrupted, especially in urban areas, in the early stages of implementation. In this regard, urban farming, while a simple concept, can have a significant impact in terms of securing food sources for urban households. It has been used in several countries such as Canada, The Netherlands, and Singapore to ensure a continuous food supply. This paper thus attempted to review how the pandemic has affected Malaysian participation in urban farming and, in relation to that, the acceptance of urban farming in Malaysia and the initiatives and approaches of local governmental and non-governmental organisations in encouraging the urban community to participate in urban farming through peer-reviewed journal articles and other articles related to urban agriculture using the ROSES protocol. About 93 articles were selected after screening to ensure that the articles were related to the study. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the surge in Malaysians’ awareness of the importance of urban farming has offered great opportunities for the government to encourage more Malaysian urban communities to participate in urban farming activities. Limitations such as relevant knowledge, area, and space, however, are impediments to urban communities’ participation in these activities. Government initiatives, such as the Urban Community Garden Policy (Dasar Kebun Komuniti Bandar (DKKB)), are still inadequate as some issues are still not addressed. Permanent Food Production Parks (TKPM) and technology-driven practices are seen as possible solutions to the primary problem of land and space. Additionally, relevant stakeholders play a crucial role in disseminating relevant and appropriate knowledge and methodology applicable for urban farming. Partnerships between government agencies, the education sector, and the private sector are necessary to develop modern urban agricultural technologies as well as knowledge, knowhow, and supports to build and sustain urban community participation in urban farming activities.

A citizen science approach to identifying trace metal contamination risks in urban gardens

We launched the VegeSafe program in 2013 to assist Australians concerned about exposure to contaminants in their soils and gardens. VegeSafe analyses garden soils provided by citizens for trace metals at our laboratory at little to no cost, with easy-to-follow guidance on any intervention required. The response was overwhelming-Australians submitted 17,256 soils from 3,609 homes, and in turn VegeSafe researchers now have unparalleled household-scale data, providing new insights into urban trace metal contamination. The results are sobering, with 35% of homes, particularly those that are older, painted and located in inner cities having soils above the Australian residential guideline (300 mg/kg) for the neurotoxic trace metal lead (Pb). Exposure pathway, blood Pb concentration and vegetable uptake modelling showed the communities in these locations were most at risk. VegeSafe is transformative: 94% of participants better understood contaminants, 83% felt safer in their home environment and 40% undertook remedial action based on their results. The two-way nature of this program enables education of citizens about environmental contaminants, advances public health, and delivers impactful science.

Reviewing chemical and biological risks in urban agriculture: A comprehensive framework for a food safety assessment of city region food systems

Attention to urban agriculture (UA) has recently grown among practitioners, scientists, and the public, resulting in several initiatives worldwide. Despite the positive perception of modern UA and locally grown, fresh produce, the potential food safety risks connected to these practices may be underestimated, leading to regulatory gaps. Thus, there is a need for assessment tools to evaluate the food safety risks connected to specific UA initiatives, to assist practitioners in self-evaluation and control, and to provide policy makers and scholars a means to pursue and assess food safety in city regions, avoiding either a lack or an excess of regulation that could ultimately hinder the sector. To address this aim, this paper reviews the most recent and relevant literature on UA food safety assessments. Food safety indicators were identified first. Then, a food safety assessment framework for UA initiatives was developed. The framework uses business surveys and food analyses (if available) as a data source for calculating a food safety index for single UA businesses and the whole UA landscape of a given city region. The proposed framework was designed to allow its integration into the CRFS (City Region Food System) toolkit developed by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), RUAF foundation (Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security) and Wilfrid Laurier University.

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Connection of several biological and chemical food safety risks to UA techniques.

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Identifiable food safety risk factors for diverse UA practices.

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Framework for the assessment of food safety levels of UA initiatives.

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Development of a risk-based assessment that can be integrated into the FAO CRFS framework.

Are heavy metals in urban garden soils linked to vulnerable populations? A case study from Guelph, Canada

With increasing population, there is growing concern for food security in urban areas. Though, urban gardening has gained popularity, several studies have found higher concentrations of contaminants in urban soils, especially heavy metals, often at toxic levels, which pose a potential risk for human health. Moreover, heavy metal polluted sites have been strongly associated with areas populated by low-income families, newcomers and racial minorities. In this study, heavy metals in the soils of community gardens in the city of Guelph, ON were examined as a case study and their relationship with vulnerable populations. We analyzed soil samples at two depths for a range of heavy metals and characterized their spatial patterns to see if they were related to disadvantaged communities. We estimated the pollution levels using two index-based approaches and assessed their potential risk for human health, although concentrations of most heavy metals were below the limits established by Canadian regulations, metals like Cd, Pb, Se and Zn exhibited a mild degree of pollution, whereas As exhibited a severe degree. Their association with vulnerable populations were weak, but hotspots were mainly located in low-income areas. This case study provides scientific evidence that could help to expand our understanding around the interconnection between pollution and poverty/racial inequality. Also the importance of generating strategies for the protection of human health and sustainable soil management practices in urban areas where food for human consumption is grown.

Community gardens and wellbeing amongst vulnerable populations: a thematic review

The aim of the thematic review is to document the effects of community gardens on wellbeing amongst vulnerable populations. We searched for articles published between 1980 and 2017 in major databases resulting in the inclusion of 51 articles. Vulnerable populations included, amongst others, ethnic minorities and refugees, socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods or low-income or food insecure families. Our findings suggest that community garden participation may have a positive impact on physical health, such as reducing body weight and hypertension, and increasing physical activity and food knowledge. However, findings relating to community gardens and their potential to enhance food security were inconsistent. Furthermore we found that community gardens can have a positive influence both at the individual level (i.e. self-esteem, independence, personal control, etc.), particularly for refugees; the relational and social level (i.e. relationships, social connections, community and neighbourhood). Community garden participation have the potential to enhance wellbeing amongst vulnerable populations. However, two articles in our review presented potential food safety concerns related to community gardens, indicating that, particularly in urban settings, attention must be given to minimizing potential food safety concerns, e.g. by using raised garden beds. Based on this review, we recommend that further research and evaluation on non-US-based community gardens is carried out, as community gardens are practiced globally but there is little research to document the effects of community gardens on wellbeing amongst vulnerable populations outside of the USA.

The urban lead (Pb) burden in humans, animals and the natural environment

Centuries of human activities, particularly housing and transportation practices from the late 19th century through the 1980's, dispersed hundreds of millions of tons of lead into our urban areas. The urban lead burden is evident among humans, wild and domesticated animals, and plants. Animal lead exposures closely mirror and often exceed the lead exposure patterns of their human partners. Some examples: Pigeons in New York City neighborhoods mimicked the lead exposures of neighborhood children, with more contaminated areas associated with higher exposures in both species. Also, immediately following the lead in drinking water crisis in Flint MI in 2015, blood lead levels in pet dogs in Flint were 4 times higher than in surrounding towns. And combining lead's neurotoxicity with urban stress results in well-characterized aggressive behaviors across multiple species. Lead pollution is not distributed evenly across urban areas. Although average US pediatric lead exposures have declined by 90% since the 1970s, there remain well defined neighborhoods where children continue to have toxic lead exposures; animals are poisoned there, too. Those neighborhoods tend to have disproportionate commercial and industrial lead activity; a history of dense traffic; older and deteriorating housing; past and operating landfills, dumps and hazardous waste sites; and often lead contaminated drinking water. The population there tends to be low income and minority. Urban wild and domesticated animals bear that same lead burden. Soil, buildings, dust and even trees constitute huge lead repositories throughout urban areas. Until and unless we begin to address the lead repositories in our cities, the urban lead burden will continue to impose enormous costs distributed disproportionately across the domains of the natural environment. Evidence-based research has shown the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of some US public policies to prevent or reduce these exposures. We end with a series of recommendations to manage lead-safe urban environments.

Nanotechnology application in food packaging: A plethora of opportunities versus pending risks assessment and public concerns

Environmental factors, oxidation and microorganisms contamination, are the major causes for food spoilage, which leads to sensory features alteration, loss of quality, production of harmful chemicals and growth of foodborne pathogens capable to cause severe illness. Synthetic preservatives, traditional conserving methods and food packaging (FP), although effective in counteracting food spoilage, do not allow the real-time monitoring of food quality during storage and transportation and assent a relatively short shelf life. In addition, FP may protect food by the spoilage caused by external contaminations, but is ineffective against foodborne microorganisms. FP preservative functionalities could be improved adding edible natural antioxidants and antimicrobials, but such chemicals are easily degradable. Nowadays, thanks to nanotechnology techniques, it is possible to improve the FP performances, formulating and inserting more stable antioxidant/antimicrobial ingredients, improving mechanical properties and introducing intelligent functions. The state-of-the-art in the field of nanomaterial-based improved FP, the advantages that might derive from their extensive introduction on the market and the main concerns associated to the possible migration and toxicity of nanomaterials, frequently neglected in existing reviews, have been herein discussed.

Individual and Community Engagement in Response to Environmental Challenges Experienced in Four Low-Income Urban Neighborhoods

Low-income urban communities, and the individuals that live within them, continue to face disproportionate interconnected social, economic, and environmental challenges related to their built, natural, and social environments. The aim of our phenomenological research study was to elevate the experiences of residents living in low-income urban neighborhoods in terms of their communities' environmental challenges. Our objectives were to (1) identify challenges across neighborhoods, (2) identify ways individuals and communities are addressing those challenges, and (3) assess the individual and collective efficacy and engagement of communities to lead environmental improvements in neighborhoods. This study brings forward the voices that are often ignored or misunderstood in these communities and uses an ecological-social perspective. We conducted focus groups (N = 68) in four low-income urban neighborhoods across two Ohio cities in the United States. Participants described five key challenges in their communities: Pollution, abandoned buildings with associated crime, low food access and health concerns, trash and illegal dumping, and lack of trees. We assessed engagement and efficacy using two frameworks focused on individual and community readiness to engage in and lead community change. Policymakers should acknowledge the valuable contributions and leadership capacity of residents in low-income communities to implement environmental initiatives.

Safe Community Gardening Practices: Focus Groups with Garden Leaders in Atlanta, Georgia

Although best management practices have been recommended by government agencies and non-profit organizations to reduce community gardeners' potential exposure to soil contaminants such as lead, some gardeners do not perform these practices. Understanding gardeners' beliefs and motivations is critical for effective promotion of safer gardening practices. This study, grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), employed five focus groups to investigate Atlanta community garden leaders' perspectives concerning three gardening practices: composting, hygiene behaviors, and mulching. These general practices are also considered safe gardening practices in that they can reduce exposure to toxicants in urban gardens. Qualitative analysis identified advantages and disadvantages; supporters and non-supporters; and barriers and facilitators that might influence gardeners' opinions regarding these behaviors. Gardeners expressed that more funding, volunteers, and training are needed to promote these behaviors. Gardeners noted that mulch and compost provided advantages such as improving soil quality, but a primary barrier was concern about contamination of source materials. Focus group participants did not directly associate composting and mulching with reduction of exposure to soil contaminants. Behavioral challenges related to hygiene included concerns about decreased exposure to salubrious bacteria, inadequate access to potable water, and limited availability of gloves and wipes. These study findings characterize factors that community garden stakeholders should consider when promoting safe gardening practices and interventions.

Perspectives on Heavy Metal Soil Testing Among Community Gardeners in the United States: A Mixed Methods Approach

Community gardens offer numerous benefits, but there are also potential risks from exposure to chemical contaminants in the soil. Through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior, this mixed methods study examined community gardeners' beliefs and intentions to conduct heavy metal soil testing. The qualitative component involved five focus groups of community garden leaders in Atlanta, Georgia. Qualitative analysis of the focus group data revealed that heavy metal soil contamination was not frequently identified as a common gardening hazard and several barriers limited soil testing in community gardens. The focus group results informed the development of a questionnaire that was administered to 500 community gardeners across the United States. Logistic regression analysis revealed that the soil testing intention was associated with attitude (aOR = 2.46, 95% CI: 1.34, 4.53), subjective norms (aOR = 3.39 95% CI: 2.07, 5.57), and perceived behavioral control (aOR = 1.81, 95% CI: 1.10, 2.99). Study findings have implications for interventions involving community garden risk mitigation, particularly gardens that engage children and vulnerable populations.

Scoping review of the impacts of urban agriculture on the determinants of health

Background

There has been an increasing interest in urban agriculture (UA) practice and research in recent years. Scholars have already reported numerous beneficial and potential adverse impacts of UA on health-related outcomes. This scoping review aims to explore these impacts and identify knowledge gaps for future UA studies.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted in seven electronic bibliographic databases to identify relevant peer-reviewed studies. Articles were screened and assessed for eligibility. From eligible studies, data were extracted to summarize, collate, appraise the quality and make a narrative account of the findings.

Results

A total of 101 articles (51 quantitative, 29 qualitative, and 21 mixed methods studies) were included in our final analysis. Among these articles, 38 and 37% reported findings from North America and Sub-Saharan Africa respectively. Quantitative studies revealed evidence of positive impacts of UA on food security, nutrition outcomes, physical and mental health outcomes, and social capital. The qualitative studies reported a wide range of perceived benefits and motivations of UA. The most frequently reported benefits include contributions to social capital, food security, health and/or wellbeing. However, the evidence must be interpreted with caution since the quality of most of the studies was assessed as weak to moderate. While no definitive conclusions can be drawn about the adverse impacts of UA on health, paying particular attention to contamination of UA soil is recommended.

Conclusion

More peer-reviewed studies are needed in areas where UA is practiced such as Latin America and Caribbean. The inconsistency and the lack of strong quality in the methodology of the included studies are proof that more rigorous studies are also needed in future research. Nevertheless, the substantial existing evidence from this review corroborate that UA can influence different determinants of health such as food security, social capital, health and well-being in a variety of contexts.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-6885-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Environmental Chemical Contaminants in Food: Review of a Global Problem

Contamination by chemicals from the environment is a major global food safety issue, posing a serious threat to human health. These chemicals belong to many groups, including metals/metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), radioactive elements, electronic waste, plastics, and nanoparticles. Some of these occur naturally in the environment, whilst others are produced from anthropogenic sources. They may contaminate our food-crops, livestock, and seafood-and drinking water and exert adverse effects on our health. It is important to perform assessments of the associated potential risks. Monitoring contamination levels, enactment of control measures including remediation, and consideration of sociopolitical implications are vital to provide safer food globally.

Evaluating Public and Regulatory Acceptance for Urban Soil Management Approaches

Regulators ( = 14) and the public ( = 30) were surveyed to compare how they perceived contaminated soil management strategies, including bioavailability assessments, using a mental models approach. Both groups proposed similar soil contamination definitions and agreed laboratory tests were needed to identify contaminants. When responding to open-ended questions about management options, regulators emphasized the risk assessment process, whereas the public noted specific treatment options. The majority of the public (68%) and regulators (86%) were concerned about particular contaminants. The public emphasized general contaminant categories, such as petroleum products and chemicals. Regulators listed specific compounds, including arsenic and dioxin. Both groups mentioned lead. Public and regulators had similar levels of agreement for soil removal ( = 0.96) and allowing soils with low bioavailability to remain in place ( = 0.66). The public were most opposed (43% disagree or strongly disagree) to using soil capping. Both groups were willing to consider using bioavailability assessments for contaminated soils. All regulators had heard of bioavailability, whereas 21 of the 24 (88%) public had not heard of this concept. Across all soil management options, the public tended to have higher rates of strongly disagree/disagree and neutral responses compared with regulators ( = 0.01). The neutral responses may indicate public ambivalence or insufficient information to respond about treatment options. Communication and public education efforts should emphasize the analytical process used to justify site-specific treatments. Additional surveys should evaluate public and regulator definitions of successful soil management and contaminant remediation in specific situations (i.e., case studies with specific contaminants and receptors of interest).