Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of extracts from herb of Chelidonium majus L

Novel Approaches for the Analysis and Isolation of Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids in Chelidonium majus

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids are the major bioactive components in Chelidonium majus, a plant that has a long usage history for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments in European and Asian phytomedicine. This study reports on the development and application of a supercritical fluid chromatography technique for the simultaneous qualitative and quantitative determination of seven benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in under six minutes using a Viridis BEH 2-EP column and a modifier comprising methanol with 30% acetonitrile and 20 mM ammonium formate. The method was fully validated according to ICH guidelines showing, e.g., excellent linearity (≥ 0.9997) and maximum deviations for intraday and inter-day precision of 2.99 and 2.76%, respectively. The new supercritical fluid chromatography assay was not only employed for the analysis of several C. majus samples but was also used for the subsequent development of a fast centrifugal partition chromatography technique, whereby five benzylisoquinoline alkaloids could be isolated within approximately 2.5 h, with only two of them, protopine and chelidonine, requiring an additional purification step. To achieve this, a solvent system composed of chloroform/methanol/0.3 M hydrochloric acid was used in descending mode. By injecting 500 mg of crude extract, stylopine (1.93 mg), sanguinarine (0.57 mg), chelidonine (1.29 mg), protopine (1.95 mg), and coptisine (7.13 mg) could be obtained. The purity of compounds was confirmed by supercritical fluid chromatography and MS.

Integrating bioinformatics and experimental models to investigate the mechanism of the chelidonine-induced mitotic catastrophe via the AKT/FOXO3/FOXM1 axis in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer (BC) is currently the most frequent and lethal cancer among women, and therefore, identification of novel biomarkers and potential anticancer agents for BC is crucial. Chelidonine is one of the main active ingredients of Chelidonium majus, which has been applied in Chinese medicine prescriptions to treat cancer. This paper aimed to evaluate the ability of chelidonine to trigger mitotic catastrophe in BC cells and to clarify its mechanism through the AKT/FOXO3/FOXM1 pathway. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that forkhead box O3 (FOXO3) was downregulated in different subtypes of BC. Factors such as age, stage, Scarff-Bloom-Richardson (SBR) grade, diverse BC subclasses, and triple-negative status were inversely correlated to FOXO3 levels in BC patients compared with healthy controls. Notably, patients exhibiting higher FOXO3 expression levels demonstrated better overall survival (OS) and relapse-free survival (RFS). Moreover, FOXM1 levels were negatively correlated with both OS and RFS in BC patients. These results revealed that FOXO3 might be considered a predictive biomarker for the prognosis of BC. By utilizing Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), we delved into the main Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment pathways of FOXO3, and the results suggested that FOXO3 was mainly involved in cancer-related pathways and the cell cycle. Thereafter, MTT and flow cytometry (FCM) analysis indicated that chelidonine inhibited BC cell line proliferation and induced M phase arrest. It was found that chelidonine treatment induced MCF-7 cell apoptosis, significantly reduced the expression of survivin and promoted the expression of p53 and caspase-9. Further morphological observation illustrated depolymerization of the actin skeleton and shortening of actin filaments in BC cells, leading to the typical characteristics of mitotic catastrophe, such as abnormal mitosis and multinucleated cells. Western blot analysis demonstrated that chelidonine inhibited the expression of p-AKT to promote the expression of FOXO3 protein and weaken the expression levels of FOXM1 and polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1). Taken together, our present work proved that FOXO3 might be considered a potential therapeutic target for BC. Chelidonine emerges as a promising agent to treat BC by inducing M phase arrest of BC cells and hindering the AKT/FOXO3/FOXM1 axis, thereby inducing mitotic catastrophe in BC.

Chelerythrine, a novel small molecule targeting IL-2, inhibits melanoma progression by blocking the interaction between IL-2 and its receptor

AIMS

In this study, we investigated the inhibition of IL-2 activity and anticancer efficacy of chelerythrine (CHE), a natural small molecule that targets IL-2 and inhibits CD25 binding, and elucidated the mechanism underlying the action of CHE on immune cells.

MAIN METHODS

CHE was discovered by competitive binding ELISA and SPR analysis. The effect of CHE on IL-2 activity was evaluated in CTLL-2, HEK-Blue reporter and immune cells, and in ex vivo generation of regulatory T cells (Treg cells). The antitumor activity of CHE was evaluated in B16F10 tumor-bearing C57BL/6 or BALB/c nude mice.

KEY FINDINGS

We identified that CHE, which acts as an IL-2 inhibitor, selectively inhibits the interaction between IL-2 and IL-2Rα and directly binds to IL-2. CHE inhibited the proliferation and signaling of CTLL-2 cells and suppressed IL-2 activity in HEK-Blue reporter and immune cells. CHE prevented the conversion of naive CD4⁺ T cells into CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg cells in response to IL-2. CHE reduced tumor growth in C57BL/6 mice but not in T-cell-deficient mice, upregulated the expression of IFN-γ and cytotoxic molecules, and limited Foxp3 expression. Furthermore, the combination of CHE and a PD-1 inhibitor synergistically increased antitumor activity in melanoma-bearing mice and almost completely regressed the implanted tumors.

SIGNIFICANCE

We found that CHE, which targets IL-2 and inhibits its binding to CD25, exhibits T cell-mediated antitumor activity and that combination therapy with CHE and PD-1 inhibitor induced synergistic antitumor effects, suggesting that CHE may be a promising anticancer agent for melanoma monotherapy and combination therapy.

Chelidonium majus Induces Apoptosis of Human Ovarian Cancer Cells via ATF3-Mediated Regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60

Forkhead transcription factor 3a (Foxo3a) is believed to be a tumor suppressor as its inactivation leads to cell transformation and tumor development. However, further investigation is required regarding the involvement of the activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3)-mediated Tat-interactive protein 60 (Tip60)/Foxo3a pathway in cancer cell apoptosis. This study demonstrated that Chelidonium majus upregulated the expression of ATF3 and Tip60 and promoted Foxo3a nuclear translocation, ultimately increasing the level of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) protein. ATF3 overexpression stimulated Tip60 expression, while ATF3 inhibition by siRNA repressed Tip60 expression. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated Tip60 inhibition significantly promoted Foxo3a phosphorylation, leading to blockade of Foxo3a translocation into the nucleus. Thus, we were able to deduce that ATF3 mediates the regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60. Moreover, siRNA-mediated Foxo3a inhibition suppressed the expression of Bax and subsequent apoptosis. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Chelidonium majus induces SKOV-3 cell death by increasing ATF3 levels and its downstream proteins Tip60 and Foxo3a. This suggests a potential therapeutic role of Chelidonium majus against ovarian cancer.

Sanguinarine-Chelerythrine Fraction of Coptis chinensis Exerts Anti-inflammatory Activity in Carrageenan Paw Oedema Test in Rats and Reveals Reduced Gastrotoxicity

Inflammatory diseases are a common therapeutic problem and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are not deprived of side effects, of which ulcerogenic activity is one of the most frequent. The aim of the study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of the sanguinarine-chelerythrine (SC) fraction of Coptis chinensis and its influence on the integrity of gastric mucosa. The study was conducted on sixty male rats randomly divided into six experimental groups: two control groups (a negative control group CON and a positive control group CAR); three groups receiving an investigational fraction of C. chinensis (1, 5, 10 mg/kg i.g.) named SC1, SC5, and SC10, respectively; and a group receiving indomethacin (IND) (10 mg/kg i.g.) as a reference drug. In all animals, the carrageenan-induced paw oedema was measured; PGE2 release, TNFα production, and MMP-9 concentration in inflamed tissue were determined. Additionally, the macroscopic and microscopic damage of gastric mucosa was evaluated. Administration of SC dose-dependently inhibited the second phase of carrageenan rat paw oedema and PGE2 release, decreased the production of TNFα, and reduced the concentration of MMP-9, and the efficacy of the highest dose was comparable to the effect of IND. Contrary to IND, no gastrotoxic activity of SC was detected. The investigated sanguinarine-chelerythrine fraction of C. chinensis seems to be a promising candidate for further research on new anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs characterized with a safer gastric profile compared to existing NSAIDs.

Functional Studies of Plant Latex as a Rich Source of Bioactive Compounds: Focus on Proteins and Alkaloids

Latex, a sticky emulsion produced by specialized cells called laticifers, is a crucial part of a plant's defense system against herbivory and pathogens. It consists of a broad spectrum of active compounds, which are beneficial not only for plants, but for human health as well, enough to mention the use of morphine or codeine from poppy latex. Here, we reviewed latex's general role in plant physiology and the significance of particular compounds (alkaloids and proteins) to its defense system with the example of Chelidonium majus L. from the poppy family. We further attempt to present latex chemicals used so far in medicine and then focus on functional studies of proteins and other compounds with potential pharmacological activities using modern techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Despite the centuries-old tradition of using latex-bearing plants in therapies, there are still a lot of promising molecules waiting to be explored.

Effectiveness of low-power laser therapy in improvement of the peripheral neuropathy induced by xenobiotics in rats

BACKGROUND

Peripheral neuropathy (PN) is the damage and dysfunction of neurons of the peripheral nervous system. The present study was conducted to estimate the effectiveness of low-power laser therapy (LPLT) in the management of PN in a rats' model.

METHODS

PN was induced by giving dichloroacetate (DCA) (250 mg/kg/day) for up to 12 weeks. Four groups of rats were used: control group, PN group, PN group treated with gabapentin and PN group treated with LPLT. The study was conducted for 8 weeks. The management of PN was estimated by behavioral tests which included hot plate and Morris water maze tests. Blood biochemical analysis were carried out.

RESULTS

Using of hot plate test indicated thermal hypoalgesia and using Morris water maze test showed cognitive decline in PN rats. Treatment with LPLT or gabapentin improved both the pain sensations and deteriorated memory that occurred in the PN rats. Biochemical analysis showed that LPLT significantly decreased the elevated beta-endorphin level in PN rats, while gabapentin could not reduce it. Treatment PN rats with LPLT or gabapentin shifted the high levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10 cytokines back to their normal values. Serum nitric oxide and MDA significantly increased in the PN group together with significant reduction in the rGSH level, these values were significantly improved by LPLT application while this was not the case with gabapentin treatment. Furthermore, treatment with gabapentin or LPLT significantly reduced serum ALAT and ASAT activities which are otherwise increased in the PN group. S100B, PGE2, total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, urea and creatinine showed insignificant changes among all groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that treatment with LPLT is more efficient than gabapentin in ameliorating the peripheral neuropathy induced by xenobiotics.

Molecular Characterization, Expression Analysis of Carotenoid, Xanthophyll, Apocarotenoid Pathway Genes, and Carotenoid and Xanthophyll Accumulation in Chelidonium majus L

Chelidonium majus L. is a perennial herbaceous plant that has various medicinal properties. However, the genomic information about its carotenoid biosynthesis pathway (CBP), xanthophyll biosynthesis pathway (XBP), and apocarotenoid biosynthesis pathway (ABP) genes were limited. Thus, the CBP, XBP, and ABP genes of C. majus were identified and analyzed. Among the 15 carotenoid pathway genes identified, 11 full and 4 partial open reading frames were determined. Phylogenetic analysis of these gene sequences showed higher similarity with higher plants. Through 3D structural analysis and multiple alignments, several distinct conserved motifs were identified, including dinucleotide binding motif, carotene binding motif, and aspartate or glutamate residues. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that CBP, XBP, and ABP genes were expressed in a tissue-specific manner; the highest expression levels were achieved in flowers, followed by those in leaves, roots, and stems. The HPLC analysis of the different organs showed the presence of eight different carotenoids. The highest total carotenoid content was found in leaves, followed by that in flowers, stems, and roots. This study provides information on the molecular mechanisms involved in CBP, XBP, and ABP genes, which might help optimize the carotenoid production in C. majus. The results could also be a basis of further studies on the molecular genetics and functional analysis of CBP, XBP, and ABP genes.

The Anticancer Effect of Natural Plant Alkaloid Isoquinolines

Isoquinoline alkaloids-enriched herbal plants have been used as traditional folk medicine for their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and analgesic effects. They induce cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy, leading to cell death. While the molecular mechanisms of these effects are not fully understood, it has been suggested that binding to nucleic acids or proteins, enzyme inhibition, and epigenetic modulation by isoquinoline alkaloids may play a role in the effects. This review discusses recent evidence on the molecular mechanisms by which the isoquinoline alkaloids can be a therapeutic target of cancer treatment.

Interaction of the putative anticancer alkaloid chelerythrine with nucleic acids: biophysical perspectives

Alkaloids represent an important group of molecules that have immense pharmacological potential. Benzophenanthridine alkaloids are one such class of alkaloids known for their myriad pharmacological activities that include potential anticancer activities. Chelerythrine is a premier member of the benzophenanthridine family of the isoquinoline group. This alkaloid is endowed with excellent medicinal properties and exhibits antibacterial, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The molecular basis of its therapeutic activity is considered due to its nucleic acid binding capabilities. This review focuses on consolidating the current status on the nucleic acid binding properties of chelerythrine that is essential for the rational design and development of this alkaloid as a potential drug. This work reviews the interaction of chelerythrine with different natural and synthetic nucleic acids like double- and single-stranded DNAs, heat-denatured DNA, quadruplex DNA, double- and single-stranded RNA, tRNA and triplex and quadruplex RNA. The review emphasizes on the mode, specificity, conformational aspects and energetics of the binding that is particularly helpful for developing nucleic acid targeted therapeutics. The fundamental results discussed in this review will greatly benefit drug development for many diseases and serve as a database for the design of futuristic benzophenanthridine-based therapeutics.

Chelidonine selectively inhibits the growth of gefitinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer cells through the EGFR-AMPK pathway

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been widely used for the clinical treatment of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring mutations in the EGFR. Unfortunately, due to the secondary mutation in EGFR, eventual drug-resistance is inevitable. Therefore, to overcome the resistance, new agent is urgently required. Chelidonine, extracted from the roots of Chelidonium majus, was proved to effectively suppress the growth of NSCLC cells with EGFR double mutation. Proteomics analysis indicated that mitochondrial respiratory chain was significantly inhibited by chelidonine, and inhibitor of AMPK effectively blocked the apoptosis induced by chelidonine. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that chelidonine could directly bind to EGFR and showed a much higher binding affinity to EGFR^L858R/T790M than EGFR^WT, which demonstrated that chelidonine could selectively inhibit the phosphorylation of EGFR in cells with EGFR double-mutation. In vivo study revealed that chelidonine has a similar inhibitory effect like second generation TKI Afatinib. In conclusion, targeting EGFR and inhibition of mitochondrial function is a promising anti-cancer therapeutic strategy for inhibiting NSCLC with EGFR mutation and TKI resistance.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Medicinal Plants used for Vitiligo in Traditional Persian Medicine

BACKGROUND

Vitiligo is a hypopigmentation disorder that affects 1% of the world's population. Vitiligo causes white spots on the skin, mucous membranes, or white hair by destroying skin melanocytes. The pathogenesis of vitiligo is unknown but autoimmune, autocytotoxic, and neural mechanisms are suggested. According to the autoimmune theory, in people with vitiligo, immune cells invade and damage melanocytes. T cells are more commonly present in vitiligo patients' skin and remain in the lesion site, which is composed of CD8 and CD4 T cells. Many studies have been conducted on the presence and role of cytokines such as interleukins and interferongamma (IFN-γ) in the vitiligo process.

AIM

This study aimed to introduce herbs effective against vitiligo from the perspective of Persian medicine and to investigate their possible therapeutic mechanisms with the possible effects of herbs on autoimmune mechanisms.

METHODS

For this purpose, keywords were used to extract data from Persian medicine textbooks, and then relevant scientific databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were examined.

RESULTS

It was found that Persian medicine scholars used 50 different medicinal plants to treat and reduce the complications of vitiligo, and recent scientific studies have proven immune-regulating properties and reducing the effect of many of them on cytokines.

CONCLUSION

According to scientific evidence on immunomodulatory effects, new research into the effects of these plants on vitiligo can lead to the discovery of new drugs and approaches for treating this disease.

Design, synthesis and apoptosis-related antiproliferative activities of chelidonine derivatives

To get chelidonine derivatives with enhanced antiproliferative activity and selectivity, a series of nitric oxide donating derivatives (10a-f and 11a-j) were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated. Compared with chelidonine, these compounds exhibited lower IC₅₀ values against human hepatoma cells HepG2, breast cancer cells MCF-7, colon cancer cells HCT-116, as well as leukemia cells K562. Compound 11j displayed the strongest antiproliferative activity with IC₅₀ values of 3.91, 6.90, 4.36 and 1.12 μM against the above four cells, respectively. Nevertheless, it showed an IC₅₀ value >40 μM against human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which demonstrated high selectivity between normal and cancer blood cells. In further mechanism studies, 11j showed the capability to induce K562 cells apoptosis, S phase cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial membrane potential disorder. Besides, 11j was found to be effective in promoting the expression of proapoptotic protein Bad and suppressing the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL, catalase, survivin, claspin and clusterin.

New lignanamides and alkaloids from Chelidonium majus and their anti-inflammation activity

Two new lignanamides, majusamides A and B (1 and 2), and two new alkaloids, chelidoniumine (3) and tetrahydrocoptisine N-oxide (4), together with six known hydroxycinnamic acid amides (HCCA) were isolated from the 75% ethanol extract of Chelidonium majus through the silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, MCI, ODS column chromatography, and semi-HPLC. Their structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic data and physico-chemical methods. The absolute configurations of 1-3 were determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. The anti-inflammatory activities of all the isolates on the NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophages were evaluated. Compounds 7 and 9 exhibited moderate inhibitory activity with IC₅₀ values of 25.3 ± 0.5 and 23.5 ± 1.7 μM, respectively.

Greater Celandine's Ups and Downs-21 Centuries of Medicinal Uses of Chelidonium majus From the Viewpoint of Today's Pharmacology

As antique as Dioscorides era are the first records on using Chelidonium as a remedy to several sicknesses. Inspired by the "signatura rerum" principle and an apparent ancient folk tradition, various indications were given, such as anti-jaundice and cholagogue, pain-relieving, and quite often mentioned-ophthalmological problems. Central and Eastern European folk medicine has always been using this herb extensively. In this region, the plant is known under many unique vernacular names, especially in Slavonic languages, associated or not with old Greek relation to "chelidon"-the swallow. Typically for Papaveroidae subfamily, yellow-colored latex is produced in abundance and leaks intensely upon injury. Major pharmacologically relevant components, most of which were first isolated over a century ago, are isoquinoline alkaloids-berberine, chelerythrine, chelidonine, coptisine, sanguinarine. Modern pharmacology took interest in this herb but it has not ended up in gaining an officially approved and evidence-based herbal medicine status. On the contrary, the number of relevant studies and publications tended to drop. Recently, some controversial reports and sometimes insufficiently proven studies appeared, suggesting anticancer properties. Anticancer potential was in line with anecdotical knowledge spread in East European countries, however, in the absence of directly-acting cytostatic compounds, some other mechanisms might be involved. Other properties that could boost the interest in this herb are antimicrobial and antiviral activities. Being a common synanthropic weed or ruderal plant, C. majus spreads in all temperate Eurasia and acclimates well to North America. Little is known about the natural variation of bioactive metabolites, including several aforementioned isoquinoline alkaloids. In this review, we put together older and recent literature data on phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical studies on C. majus aiming at a critical evaluation of state-of-the-art from the viewpoint of historical and folk indications. The controversies around this herb, the safety and drug quality issues and a prospective role in phytotherapy are discussed as well.

Efficiencies of Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) and Gabapentin in the Management of Peripheral Neuropathy: Diabetic Neuropathy

Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is the highly occurred complication of diabetes mellitus; it has been defined as an event of peripheral nerve dysfunction characterized by pain, allodynia, hyperalgesia, and paraesthesia. The current study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in the management of neuropathy in diabetic rats. The used animals were divided into the following groups: negative control, streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, and diabetic rats with peripheral neuropathy (DNP) and DNP treated with gabapentin or with LLLT. Behavioral tests were carried out through hotplate test for the determination of pain sensations and the Morris water maze test for spatial reference memory evaluation. Blood samples were collected at the end of treatment for biochemical determinations. In the current study, the latency of hind-paw lick decreased significantly when DNP are treated with gabapentin or LLLT. The Morris water maze test showed that LLLT treatment improved memory that deteriorated in DNP more than gabapentin do. The results of the biochemical study revealed that LLLT could not affect the level of beta-endorphin that decreased in DNP but significantly decreased S100B that rose in DNP. PGE2 and cytokines IL-1β, IL-10, and TNF-α showed significant increase in DNP compared with control group. The gabapentin administration or LLLT application significantly reversed the levels of the mentioned markers towards the normal values of the controls. Levels of serum MDA and nitric oxide increased significantly in the DNP but rGSH showed significant decrease. These markers were improved significantly when the DNP were treated with gabapentin or LLLT. The treatment with gabapentin or LLLT significantly decreased the raised level in total cholesterol in DNP but could not decrease the elevated level of triglycerides, while LDL cholesterol decreased significantly in DNP treated with gabapentin but not affected by LLLT. Values of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), urea, and creatinine increased significantly in the DPN and diabetic rats without peripheral neuropathy (PN) compared with control group. The treatment of DNP with gabapentin induced significant increases in ALAT and ASAT activities but LLLT treatment induced significant decreases in ALAT and ASAT activities as compared with DNP group. Neither gabapentin nor LLLT could improve the elevated levels of serum urea and creatinine in the DNP. It could be concluded that LLLT is more safe and effective than gabapentin in the management of neuropathy in diabetic rats.

Comparison of antioxidant activities of fractionated extracts from seedlings and herb of Chelidonium majus L. using DPPH, ABTS and FRAP methods

Introduction: Our study is a part of a trend of studies on the antioxidative properties of Chelidonium majus extracts or their fractions suggesting that antioxidant activities may depend on total flavonoid and/or alkaloid contents.

Objective: This study focused on the examination of antioxidative activities of full water extract, non-protein fraction and protein fraction of the extract from aerial parts of mature plants and young seedlings.

Methods: Total flavonoid and alkaloid contents were evaluated by spectrometric methods. Quantitative determination of chelidonine, coptisine, sanquinarine, berberine was made by HPLC-UV. The antioxidative activities were evaluated using (1) 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), (2) 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging and (3) ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) methods.

Results: All concentrations of herb extracts exhibited higher antioxidant capacities than extract from seedlings. Two antioxidant tests (DPPH, FRAP) showed that full water extract from herb had the highest antioxidant activity, while its non-protein fraction and protein fraction showed lower antioxidant activity. It was found that the full water extract from herb contained the highest concentrations of flavonoids and alkaloids when compared with other samples.

Conclusion: Our findings suggest that chelidonine and coptisine especially could be responsible for the observed changes in the extract antioxidant activity, because these alkaloids were determined in the highest concentration in full water extract from herb. It cannot be also excluded that the observed variables values between extracts and their fractions from herb or from seedlings may also be the result of interactions between flavonoids and other chemical compounds.

Strong and Long-Lasting Antinociceptive and Anti-inflammatory Conjugate of Naturally Occurring Oleanolic Acid and Aspirin

The conjugate 8 was obtained as a result of condensation of 3-hydroxyiminooleanolic acid morfolide (7) and aspirin in dioxane. Analgesic effect of OAO-ASA (8) for the range of doses 0.3–300.0 mg/kg (p.o.) was performed in mice using a hot-plate test. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed on carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats for the same range of doses. The conjugate OAO-ASA (8) did not significantly change locomotor activity of mice, therefore sedative properties of the compound should be excluded. The compound 8 proved a simple, proportional, dose-dependent analgesic action and expressed strong anti-inflammatory activity showing a reversed U-shaped, dose-dependent relation with its maximum at 30.0 mg/kg. After its combined administration with morphine (MF, 5.0 mg/kg, s.c.) the lowering of antinociceptive activity was found; however, the interaction with naloxone (NL, 3.0 mg/kg, s.c.) did not affect the antinociceptive effect of OAO-ASA (8), therefore its opioid mechanism of action should be rather excluded. After combined administration with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, 300.0 mg/kg, p.o.) in hot-plate test, the examined compound 8 enhanced the antinociceptive activity in significant way. It also shows that rather the whole molecule is responsible for the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect of the tested compound 8, however, it cannot be excluded that the summarizing effect is produced by ASA released from the compound 8 and the rest of triterpene derivative. The occurrence of tolerance for triterpenic derivative 8 was not observed, since the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects after chronic administration of the conjugate OAO-ASA (8) was on the same level as after its single treatment. It seemed that the anti-inflammatory mechanism of action of OAO-ASA (8) is not simple, even its chronic administration lowered both blood concentration of IL-6 and mRNA IL-6 expression. However, the effects of the conjugate OAO-ASA (8) on TNF-α level and mRNA expression were opposite. Moreover, compound 8 did not change unequivocally mRNA TLR1, and TLR3 expression. Concluding, the obtained results regarding the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of new conjugate of oleanolic acid oxime and acetylsalicylic acid (OAO-ASA 8) are very interesting, but for explanation of its mechanism of action, more detailed studies are necessary.