Complications and 30-day Outcomes Associated With Venous Thromboembolism in the Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgical Population

Incidence of acute Deep Vein Thrombosis in pediatric and adolescent orthopedic trauma hospitalized patients and effect of rivaroxaban treatment

OBJECTIVE

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) provoked by orthopedic trauma is increasing in pediatric hospitalized patients. The purpose of our study is to identify the prevalence of acute DVT in pediatric and adolescent orthopedic trauma hospitalized patients and focus on evaluating the anticoagulation strategies and the clinical outcomes after a confirmed acute DVT.

METHODS

Patients (age ≤18 years) with a confirmed acute DVT admitted for orthopedic trauma between September 2017 and December 2023 were included. Patients were classified into the non-anticoagulation (NA), the in-hospital anticoagulation (IHA), and the in-and-out-of-hospital anticoagulation (IOHA) groups based on their anticoagulation regimen. Efficacy outcomes were the venous thromboembolism (VTE) recurrence within 3 months and change in thrombus burden by repeat imaging at 2 weeks after discharge compared with baseline. Safety outcomes were major bleeding (MB) and clinically relevant non-major bleeding (CRNMB) within 3 months.

RESULTS

Of the 11,206 pediatric and adolescent orthopedic trauma inpatients, 94(median age,16 [15, 18] years) were diagnosed with acute DVT, with an incidence of 0.84 %, of which 8(8.5 %) received NA, 41(43.6 %) received IHA, and 45(47.9 %) received IOHA. After the diagnosis of DVT, of patients who received anticoagulation, 97.9 % were treated with rivaroxaban as an oral anticoagulant, and 71.7 % received an LMWH course of ≥5 days before starting rivaroxaban therapy. With a median anticoagulation course of 22(8, 37.3) days, the duration in the IOHA was significantly longer than the IHA (37 days vs. 8 days, p = 0.000). No patients experienced recurrent VTE and MB at 3 months, and 1 received IOHA had a CRNMB event (0 % vs. 0 % vs. 2.2 %, p = 1.000). Thrombus resolution was significantly higher in patients who received anticoagulation therapy (IOHA 91.1 % vs. IHA 80.5 % vs. NA 37.5 %, P = 0.002), and thrombus-no relevant change was significantly lower in patients who received the IOHA strategy compared with the other groups (4.4 % vs. 19.5 % vs. 62.5 %, P = 0.000).

CONCLUSIONS

A rivaroxaban-predominant IOHA strategy significantly reduced the thrombotic burden without increasing the risk of bleeding for the treatment of DVT in adolescents with orthopedic trauma. Duration of anticoagulation therapy <6 weeks appears appropriate for adolescent orthopedic trauma-related DVT.

Screening and Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism in Pediatric Surgery: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

The American Pediatric Surgical Association Outcomes and Evidence-Based Practice Committee conducted a systematic review to describe the epidemiology of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in pediatric surgical and trauma patients and develop recommendations for screening and prophylaxis.

METHODS

The Medline (Ovid), Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science databases were queried from January 2000 through December 2021. Search terms addressed the following topics: incidence, ultrasound screening, and mechanical and pharmacologic prophylaxis. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Consensus recommendations were derived based on the best available literature.

RESULTS

One hundred twenty-four studies were included. The incidence of VTE in pediatric surgical populations is 0.29% (Range = 0.1%-0.48%) and directly correlates with surgery type, transfusion, prolonged anesthesia, malignancy, congenital heart disease, inflammatory bowel disease, infection, and female sex. The incidence of VTE in pediatric trauma populations is 0.25% (Range = 0.1%-0.8%) and directly correlates with injury severity, major surgery, central line placement, body mass index, spinal cord injury, and length-of-stay. Routine ultrasound screening for VTE is not recommended. Consider sequential compression devices in at-risk nonmobile, pediatric surgical patients when an appropriate sized device is available. Consider mechanical prophylaxis alone or with pharmacologic prophylaxis in adolescents >15 y and post-pubertal children <15 y with injury severity scores >25. When utilizing pharmacologic prophylaxis, low molecular weight heparin is superior to unfractionated heparin.

CONCLUSIONS

While VTE remains an infrequent complication in children, consideration of mechanical and pharmacologic prophylaxis is appropriate in certain populations.

TYPE OF STUDY

Systematic Review of level 2-4 studies.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 3-4.

Risk factors for venous thromboembolism after primary total joint arthroplasty: An analysis of 7511 Taiwanese patients

BACKGROUND

The need for thromboprophylaxis in Asian patients after primary total joint arthroplasty (TJA) remains inconclusive. We aimed to identify the risk factors for venous thromboembolism (VTE) events following primary TJA in a Taiwanese population.

METHODS

From January 2010 to December 2019, we studied 7511 patients receiving primary TJA from a single surgeon. We validated the incidence and risk factors for 30- and 90-day symptomatic VTE events, including age, sex, body mass index (BMI), smoking, medical comorbidities, VTE history, presence of varicose veins, total knee arthroplasty (TKA) vs total hip arthroplasty (THA), unilateral vs bilateral procedure and receipt of VTE prophylaxis, transfusion, and length of stay.

RESULTS

The incidence of 30- and 90-day symptomatic VTE events was 0.33% and 0.44%, respectively. Multivariate regression analysis showed that BMI ≥30 (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 4.862, 95% CI, 1.776-13.313), bilateral TJA procedure (aOR: 2.665, 95% CI, 1.000-7.104), and presence of varicose veins (aOR: 9.946, 95% CI, 1.099-90.024) were associated with increased odds of 30-day symptomatic VTE events. Age ≥77 years (aOR, 2.358, 95% CI, 1.034-5.381) and BMI ≥30 (aOR: 2.832, 95% CI, 1.039-7.721) were associated with increased odds of 90-day symptomatic VTE events.

CONCLUSION

Age ≥77 years, BMI ≥30, bilateral TJA procedure, or presence of varicose veins may require pharmacological thromboprophylaxis because such patients have a higher risk of VTE after primary TJA.

Incidence of venous thromboembolism in pediatric orthopedics: A systematic review

BACKGROUNDS

Children undergoing orthopedic procedures often present numerous risk factors for thromboembolism. A recent survey, conducted by the Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America (POSNA), indicates that pediatric orthopedic surgeons are unaware of venous thromboembolism (VTE) prevention protocols and feel that certain procedures should require thromboprophylaxis. The aim of this systematic review was to properly assess the incidence of VTE in pediatric orthopedics. By using a thorough and broad search of the literature, the incidence according to different subspecialties of pediatric orthopedics was evaluated.

METHODS

A systematic review on VTE in pediatric orthopedics was conducted. Four databases were searched for articles reporting these events. Three major search concepts: "pediatrics", "orthopedic surgery/trauma" and "VTE complications" were used and broken down in MeSH, EmTree and their free vocabulary synonyms for proper literature review. Two independent authors screened 8467 titles and abstracts. Seventy articles reporting VTE in children treated by orthopedic surgeons were selected for data extraction. We reported median incidences by orthopedic subtypes and by study characteristics with a semi-quantitative review model.

RESULTS

The 70 articles yielded a total of 845,010 participants. Spine articles (33/70) provided 25,2% of the children included in the review. Trauma studies (16/70) accounted for 47.5% of the participants. The overall VTE median incidence was 0.16% [95% CI: 0.0-1.01%]. Musculoskeletal infections had a noticeably higher median incidence of 3.5% [CI: 0.0-13.8%]. Small variations were seen for the other subtypes: trauma, spine and elective surgeries. Subgroups by article characteristics did not differ significantly either.

CONCLUSION

Thrombotic complications are rare events in pediatric orthopedics, but knowledge epidemiologic is important because its potential severity. In this review, VTE median incidence for all orthopedic subtypes was around 0.16% [CI: 0.0-1.01%]. According to subspecialty assessment, musculoskeletal infections were associated with greater risk of VTE occurrence.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III - Systematic review.

Pediatric Orthopaedic Venous Thromboembolism: A Systematic Review Investigating Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcome

Background

There is growing evidence of increased venous thromboembolism (VTE) incidence in children with trauma or infection. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of existing literature related to VTE in the pediatric orthopaedic population, to estimate the overall incidence of VTE and identify risk factors associated with this condition.

Methods

A systematic review of the available literature was performed to identify articles that described VTE in pediatric orthopaedic surgery or admission. Literature queries were performed to identify articles published from 1980 to 2021 that included patients ≤21 years of age. A stepwise search strategy of 5 electronic databases yielded 1,426 articles, which were filtered by 2 reviewers to identify 30 articles for full-text review. The primary aim was to determine the rate of VTE, and the secondary aim was to identify risk factors for VTE. The pooled incidence of VTE was estimated and reported in cases per 10,000. Studies were stratified by study size, by trauma versus elective surgery, and by orthopaedic subspecialty.

Results

The 30 articles reported 3,113 VTE events in 2,467,764 pediatric patients (including those with non-orthopaedic conditions), for a pooled VTE incidence of 20 events (95% confidence interval [CI] = 10.8 to 37.2) per 10,000. Four of the studies were excluded for incomplete data or high heterogeneity. The remaining 26 studies had 850,268 orthopaedic patients with 1,108 cases of VTE, for a pooled VTE incidence of 16.6 events (95% CI = 9.1 to 30.5) per 10,000. Studies with <10,000 patients and those involving a diagnosis of trauma had the highest VTE incidence when stratification was performed. The most frequently analyzed risk factors in 15 available studies included age, sex, obesity/body mass index, type of surgery, and use of a central venous catheter.

Conclusions

This systematic review indicated that the risk of VTE associated with pediatric orthopaedic surgery or admission remains low, at <17 events per 10,000 cases. However, orthopaedic surgeons should be aware of the most common risk factors associated with pediatric orthopaedic VTE and should pay special attention to traumatic etiologies, as these yielded the highest incidence.

Levels of Evidence

Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Venous thromboembolism in orthopedic surgery: Global guidelines

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a severe complication that can occur after major orthopedic procedures. As VTE-related morbidity and mortality are a significant concern for both medical professionals and patients, and preventative measures are typically employed. Multiple organizations, including the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) and the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons (AAOS), have developed guidelines for VTE prophylaxis specifically in patients undergoing joint replacement procedures. However, recently, the International Consensus Meeting (ICM) was convened, which brought together over 600 experts from 68 countries and 135 international societies. These experts, spanning a range of medical disciplines including orthopedic surgery, anesthesia, cardiology, hematology, vascular, and internal medicine, conducted a comprehensive review of the literature using a strict Delphi process to generate practical recommendations for VTE prophylaxis across all types of orthopedic procedures. This review article summarizes some of the recommendations of the ICM.

Incidence of Readmission Following Pediatric Hand Surgery: An Analysis of 6600 Patients

BACKGROUND

Quality in surgical outcomes is frequently assessed by the 30-day readmission rate. There are limited data available in the published literature regarding readmission rates following pediatric hand surgery. This study aims to identify factors associated with an increased risk of readmission following hand surgery in a pediatric population.

METHODS

The 2012-2017 National Surgical Quality Improvement Project - Pediatric (NSQIP-P) databases were queried for pediatric patients who underwent procedures with hand-specific current procedural terminology (CPT) codes. The primary outcome was readmission.

RESULTS

A total of 6600 pediatric patients were identified and included in the analysis. There were 45 patients who were readmitted in the study cohort, giving an overall readmission rate of 0.68%. The median time to readmission was 12 (IQR 5-20) days. On univariate analysis, factors associated with readmission included younger age, smaller size, prematurity, higher American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class, inpatient admission at index operation, and longer anesthesia and operative times. Complex syndactyly repair was also associated with higher readmission rates. On multivariate analysis, ASA class 3 or 4 and inpatient surgery remained significant predictors of readmission.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, pediatric hand surgery is associated with a very low risk of 30-day readmission. Higher ASA class and inpatient surgery increase patients' risk for readmission. In particular, complex syndactyly repair is associated with a higher risk of readmission than other hand procedures. This information is useful in surgical planning and preoperative counseling of parents.

Risk Factors for Venous Thromboembolism in Children Undergoing Orthopedic Surgery

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is an uncommon but highly morbid and potentially preventable complication in children. This study aimed to characterize the incidence of, and risk factors for, VTE in children undergoing orthopedic surgery. A retrospective analysis was performed using the 2012 to 2017 American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Pediatric (NSQIP-P) database. Patient demographics, comorbidities, operative variables, and perioperative outcomes were compared between patients who did and did not develop a VTE. In total, 81,490 pediatric patients who underwent orthopedic surgery were identified. Of those, the mean±SD age was 9.7±4.8 years, and 50.1% were male. Sixty patients (0.07%) developed a postoperative VTE. On multivariate regression, demographic and surgical variables associated with a VTE were ages 16 to 18 years (P=.002; compared with ages 11 to 15 years), American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classes III and V (P=.003; compared with ASA classes I and II), preoperative blood transfusion (P<.001), arthrotomy (P<.001), and femur fracture (P<.001). Postoperative adverse events occurring prior to a VTE were also assessed. Controlling for patient factors, independent risk factors for VTE included any adverse event (P<.001), major adverse events (P<.001), minor adverse events (P<.001), reoperation (P<.001), and readmission (P<.001). This study identified an incidence of VTE of 0.07% in a population of more than 80,000 children undergoing orthopedic surgery. The identification of risk factors for VTE in this patient population raises the issue of VTE prophylaxis for select high-risk subpopulations. [Orthopedics. 2022;45(1):31-37.].

Pediatric Venous Thromboembolism: Different Rates of Incidence, Anatomic Locations, and Risk Factors Between Orthopaedic and Nonorthopaedic Related Patients

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) may be increasing in children; however, scarce literature exists comparing incidence rates between pediatric orthopaedic patients and other pediatric patients. The purpose of this study was to compare the incidence, anatomic locations, and risk factors of VTEs between orthopaedic and nonorthopaedic pediatric related patients to determine if important differences exist.

METHODS

Computed tomography and ultrasound data were reviewed for children (below 19 y old) with a diagnosed VTE between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2016. Demographic and clinical data, including VTE anatomic location and risk factors, were recorded. Two major cohorts were identified: orthopaedic-related (ORTH) and nonorthopaedic-related (NORTH) VTEs. Incidence rates were estimated and risk factors were compared using χ2 testing.

RESULTS

There were 373 children diagnosed with a VTE (average age 10.3 y) of a total of 810,097 treated as in-patients for an incidence rate of 4.60 per 10,000 cases (95% confidence interval=4.15 to 5.10 per 10,000 cases). The rate of ORTH VTEs (28 of 188,669 orthopaedic patients, 1.48 per 10,000 cases) was significantly lower than that of NORTH VTEs (345 of 621,428 nonorthopaedic patients, 5.55 per 10,000 cases; P<0.001). For the ORTH cohort, there was a significant difference in the proportion of deep vein thrombosis in the lower extremity (91%) compared with the upper extremity (9%) (P<0.001), while a more even distribution of NORTH deep vein thrombosis in the upper (50%) and lower (41%) extremities was appreciated. The primary risk factors for ORTH VTEs included surgery (93%; P<0.001), change in ambulatory status (61%; P<0.001), and trauma (18%; P<0.001), while the primary risk factors for NORTH VTEs included intravenous peripheral inserted central catheter/central line (61%; P<0.001) and cancer (27%; P=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric ORTH VTEs have a significantly lower incidence rate and different primary risk factors than those of NORTH VTEs. This information is useful for health care providers when making decisions regarding risk and prophylaxis in pediatric patients with orthopaedic and nonorthopaedic conditions.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Venous Thromboembolism After Pelvic Osteotomy in Adolescent Patients: A Database Study Characterizing Rates and Current Practices

BACKGROUND

Current risks and practices in medical prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism (VTE) after major elective lower extremity surgeries such as pelvic osteotomies have not been well-defined in the pediatric population. The purpose of this study was to (1) evaluate population rates of VTE in adolescents undergoing pelvic osteotomies, and (2) characterize current practices on types of VTE prophylaxis being utilized after pelvic osteotomies.

METHODS

The study evaluated the Pediatric Health Information System database between October 1, 2015 and January 1, 2020 for patients between 10 and 18 years of age meeting selected ICD-10 procedure and diagnosis codes relating to pelvic osteotomies. The rate of VTE was calculated within 90 days of index procedure. Types of pharmacologic prophylaxis were characterized. Continuous variables were compared with 2-sample t tests; proportions and categorical variables were compared with Fisher exact or χ2 tests, all with 2-tailed significance <0.05.

RESULTS

Of 1480 included patients, 9 were diagnosed with VTE within 90 days of surgery (VTE rate: 0.61%). Four of 9 (44.4%) had received pharmacologic prophylaxis postoperatively. There were no differences in baseline demographics or length of stay between patients that did or did not develop VTE (P>0.05). Overall, 52.0% received at least one form of pharmacologic prophylaxis postoperatively. The most common pharmacologic prophylaxis used was aspirin (47.6%), of which 64.4% received 81 mg dosing. There was no difference in VTE rates in those with or without prophylaxis (0.52% vs. 0.70%, P=0.75). However, those prescribed prophylaxis were significantly older (15.2±2.3 vs. 13.6±2.4 y, P<0.0001) and had a higher proportion of females (71.8% vs. 54.6%, P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The overall rate of VTE in pediatric patients after pelvic osteotomies is non-negligible. There is heterogeneity in the type of anticoagulant utilized; however, VTE prophylaxis is most commonly prescribed in older adolescents and female patients. Guidelines for medical prevention of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in the pediatric population are warranted after hip preservation surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, case series.

Total Hip Arthroplasty in Adolescents and Young Adults for Management of Advanced Corticosteroid-Induced Osteonecrosis Secondary to Treatment for Hematologic Malignancies

BACKGROUND

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is a potentially severe toxicity associated with glucocorticoid treatment for pediatric hematologic malignancy. We examined clinical outcomes of THA in adolescents and young adults treated for hematologic malignancies who developed advanced ONFH.

METHODS

In a single-institution cohort, we retrospectively reviewed medical records and imaging for perioperative complications, reoperations, functional assessment at last follow-up, and radiological outcomes. Twenty-seven patients (41 hips) underwent THA (bilateral in 14 patients). There were 11 males. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) age at primary diagnosis was 14.9 years [1.8-18.9]. The median (IQR) age at THA was 19.8 years [14.6-30.3]. Mean (range) post-THA follow-up was 111.5 months (65.4-165.8).

RESULTS

Perioperative complications included one intraoperative calcar fracture that was secured with a cerclage wire and one posterior hip dislocation that occurred 6 days postoperatively, requiring closed reduction. One hip required a revision 21.1 months post-THA due to a fractured ceramic liner. The radiographic review was available for 38 of 41 hips and demonstrated none with loosening, subsidence, or osteolysis; nine developed periacetabular stress shielding. Incidence of stress shielding was associated with increased postoperative pain (P = .0130). There was a significant functional improvement in range of motion (ROM), pain, use of supports, participation in school, work, and sports, and use of pain medication from preoperative to postoperative clinical visits (P < .001).

DISCUSSION

Total hip arthroplasty in adolescents and young adults offers symptomatic and functional improvement in patients with ONFH. We found it to be safe with low perioperative complication rates even in patients undergoing active treatment for malignancy.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, case series study. See Instructions for authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Trombose venosa profunda após uma fratura supracondilar do úmero em uma criança – Uma complicação rara

Trombose venosa profunda nas extremidades superiores é incomum, especialmente na população pediátrica e no ambiente do trauma. O diagnóstico é desafiador, devido a sua raridade, exigindo alto grau de suspeita.

Descrevemos um caso raro de trombose venosa úmera após uma fratura supracondilar deslocada do úmero em uma menina de 7 anos. Os fatores de risco para tromboembolismo e sequelas também são discutidos.

A detecção e o tratamento precoces são obrigatórios para evitar desfechos ruins, como tromboembolismo fatal.

Optimizing pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis use in pediatric orthopedic surgical patients through implementation of a perioperative venous thromboembolism risk screening tool

BACKGROUND

Although rare, venous thromboembolic events (VTE) are a significant challenge in pediatric orthopedic surgical patients (POSP). A VTE thromboprophylaxis screening tool was developed and implemented in POSPs at the IWK Health Centre since October 2016.

OBJECTIVES

This retrospective cohort study was designed to evaluate and assess the impact of the VTE thromboprophylaxis screening tool in terms of use of thromboprophylaxis in POSP.

METHODS

Using the tool, POSPs were screened and were categorized into risk groups. Patient groups were compared and spearman correlation analysis was performed to show the strength of association between risk factors and thromboprophylaxis. Retrospective screening of pre-algorithm patients who received thromboprophylaxis was done to further assess the screening tool.

RESULTS

After the implementation of the VTE thromboprophylaxis screening tool in POSPs, there was a 47.9% reduction in the use of thromboprophylaxis (P = 0.046) as compared with before. Neither VTE nor significant bleeding complications occurred before or after screening tool implementation. Compliance with the screening tool was excellent (100% of patients in the high-risk category received thromboprophylaxis). High-risk patients were more likely to have body mass index  > 30 (35.7%), limited/altered mobility (57.1%), and to be undergoing a complicated/repeat surgery (64.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates successful implementation of a VTE thromboprophylaxis screening tool that resulted in significant reduction in use of thromboprophylaxis in POSPs with no increase in VTE or change in bleeding complications.

Intraoperative Pulmonary Embolism in an Adolescent Patient with Type III Spinal Muscular Atrophy: A Case Report

CASE

We present the case of an 11-year-old girl with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) type III who suffered an intraoperative venous thromboembolism (VTE), leading to death during bilateral extremity contracture releases for deformity correction.

CONCLUSION

Given the increasing incidence of VTE in pediatric patients, further consideration should be given to broadening the patient population offerring preoperative deep vein thrombosis screening or thromboprophylaxis. Specifically, patients with previous trauma, neuromuscular disorders, and prolonged immobilization or contractures should receive special attention. In addition, SMA may cause hypercoagulability independent of its status as a neuromuscular disorder, and this link should be investigated further.

Prophylaxis for Pediatric Venous Thromboembolism: Current Status and Changes Across Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America From 2011

INTRODUCTION

Pediatric venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a concern for orthopaedic surgeons. We sought to query the Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America (POSNA) members on current VTE prophylaxis practice and compare those results with those of a previous survey (2011).

METHODS

A 35-question survey was emailed to all active and candidate POSNA members. The survey consisted of questions on personal and practice demographics; knowledge and implementation of various VTE prophylaxis protocols, mechanical and chemical VTE prophylaxis agents, and risk factors; and utilization of scenarios VTE prophylaxis agents for various clinical scenarios. One- and two-way frequency tables were constructed comparing results from the current survey and those of the 2011 survey.

RESULTS

Two hundred thirty-nine surveys were completed (18% respondent rate), with most respondents from an academic/university practice reporting one or two partners (>60%). Half were in practice ≥15 years, and >90% reported an almost exclusive pediatric practice. One-third of the respondents reported familiarity with their institution-defined VTE prophylaxis protocol, and 20% were aware of an institutionally driven age at which all patients receive VTE prophylaxis. The most frequently recognized risk factors to guide VTE prophylaxis were oral contraceptive use, positive family history, and obesity. Respondents indicated a similar frequency of use of a VTE prophylaxis agent (either mechanical or chemical) for spinal fusion, hip reconstruction, and trauma (60% to 65%), with lower frequency for neuromuscular surgery (34%) (P < 0.001). One hundred thirty-seven respondents had a patient sustain a deep vein thrombosis, and 66 had a patient sustain a pulmonary embolism. Compared with responses from 2011, only 20 more respondents reported familiarity with their institution VTE prophylaxis protocol (75 versus 55). In 2018, aspirin was used more frequently than in 2011 (52% versus 19%; P < 0.0001) and enoxaparin was used less frequently (20% versus 41%; P < 0.0001).

DISCUSSION

Over the past 7 years since the first POSNA survey on VTE prophylaxis, most POSNA members are still unaware of their institution specific VTE prophylaxis protocol. Most respondents agree that either mechanical or chemical VTE prophylaxis should be used for spinal fusion, hip reconstruction, and trauma. The use of aspirin as an agent of chemical VTE prophylaxis has increased since 2011.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV. Type of evidence: therapeutic.

Venous thromboembolism in children undergoing surgery: incidence, risk factors and related adverse events

Background

Although less common in adults, venous thromboembolism (VTE) in children is a highly morbid, preventable adverse event. While VTE has been well studied among pediatric hospitalized and trauma patients, limited work has been done to examine postoperative VTE in children undergoing surgery.

Methods

Using data from National Surgical Quality Improvement Project Pediatric database (NSQIP-P) from 2012 to 2016, a retrospective cohort analysis was performed to determine the incidence of, and risk factors for, VTE in children undergoing surgery. Additionally, the relationships between VTE and other postoperative adverse outcomes were evaluated.

Results

Of 361 384 pediatric surgical patients, 378 (0.10%) were identified as experiencing postoperative VTE. After controlling for patient and surgical factors, we found that American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class of II or greater, aged 16–18 years, non-elective surgery, general surgery (compared with several other surgical specialties), cardiothoracic surgery (compared with general surgery) and longer operative time were significantly associated with VTE in pediatric patients (p<0.001 for each comparison). Furthermore, a majority of adverse events were found to be associated with increased risk of subsequent VTE (p<0.001).

Conclusion

In a large pediatric surgical population, an incidence of postoperative VTE of 0.10% was observed. Defined patient and surgical factors, and perioperative adverse events were found to be associated with such VTE events.

Development of a perioperative venous thromboembolism prophylaxis algorithm for pediatric orthopedic surgical patients

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been recognized as a rare but potentially serious complication in pediatric orthopedic patients. However, standardized guidelines for screening and management of at-risk patients do not exist. The aim of the study was to develop a VTE prophylaxis screening tool for postoperative orthopedic patients after conducting an institutional needs assessment survey. A needs assessment survey was conducted after institutional ethics board approval. Development of perioperative VTE prophylaxis algorithm for pediatric orthopedic surgical patients was planned after thorough literature review, consultation with national and international experts as well as using a modified nominal and consensus development conference (serial meetings) method for reaching a consensus. NAS as well as discussion with stakeholders indicated support for development of perioperative VTE prophylaxis algorithm for orthopedic patients. Using above methods, a VTE prophylaxis algorithm was developed and implemented at IWK Health Center. The present study involved development of a perioperative VTE prophylaxis algorithm for pediatric orthopedic surgical patients that could be easily and rapidly administered as a point of care assessment tool.

Thrombotic risk in children undergoing orthopedic surgery

Children are physiologically protected against venous thromboembolism (VTE). Specific triggering events or contributing factors have been identified in the majority of reported cases, which differs from the adult pathology where 50% of the thromboses are considered "idiopathic". This is a rare disease in children with an estimated frequency of less than 1/1000. The risk is highest in neonates, then decreases and increases again around 13 years to reach the same level as adults at 16 years. The risk of VTE is clearly higher in certain situations: significant trauma, prolonged immobilization, central venous catheter, stay in intensive care unit, inherited thrombophilia, cancer, obesity, oral contraceptives, etc. Thromboprophylaxis should not be used systematically, even in adolescents. Proper hydration and early mobilization form the basis of mechanical thromboprophylaxis. A prescription is only given after careful analysis of the child's risk factors and the orthopedic context. Thrombotic risk assessment scores - which are based on expert opinion and large VTE registers but have not been evaluated in clinical studies - are currently the most reliable method to evaluate the thrombotic risk in children and to prescribe thromboprophylaxis. Low-molecular weight heparin are the most commonly used thromboprophylaxis agents in children, with good tolerance and efficacy.

A Review on Clinical, Pathophysiological, and Diagnostic Hematological Features in Children With Liver Cirrhosis

Appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic measures for liver cirrhosis is critical, particularly in children. In the present review, a comprehensive approach was provided toward hematological parameters in pediatric liver cirrhosis. The literature search included MeSH terms "liver cirrhosis" and "hepatic cirrhosis" and databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched up until December 2017. Hematologic changes in the liver cirrhosis mainly encompassed anemia and coagulopathies. In addition, bleeding diathesis was considered as the most clinical complication in these patients. In addition to reduced coagulation factors, hyperfibrinolysis is a common feature in childhood cirrhosis and may be an important contributor to the risk of bleeding. Based on the results, children with liver cirrhosis also demonstrated a procoagulant state at laboratory and clinical levels. This may be partly due to a reduction in coagulation inhibitors such as anti-thrombin, C1 inhibitor, and α1-antitrypsin in children with cirrhosis. The portal vein thrombosis and portal hypertension are considered as the most clinical presentations of the hypercoagulable state. Further, children with liver cirrhosis complicated with portal hypertension usually show leukopenia, anemia, and thrombocytopenia due to hypersplenism. Although the etiology of childhood and adult cirrhosis may be different, their hematological compilations and clinicopathological features are somehow similar.

The Importance of a Standardized Screening Tool to Identify Thromboembolic Risk Factors in Pediatric Lower Extremity Arthroscopy Patients

INTRODUCTION

Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism are major complications that can occur in common orthopaedic procedures such as knee arthroscopy. The purpose of this study is to determine the incidence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk factors in adolescent patients undergoing elective lower extremity arthroscopy. A second objective is to determine whether a targeted, standardized screening tool is both cost- and clinically effective in the identification of VTE risk factors in adolescents.

METHODS

A standardized VTE screening tool was prospectively administered to all elective arthroscopic procedures in a pediatric sports medicine practice. A comparison cohort that did not complete the screening tool was isolated through a retrospective chart review identifying VTE risk factors. The incidence and cost between the two cohorts were compared.

RESULTS

Of 332 subjects who did not receive a targeted screening (TS) tool, 103 risk factors were noted. One pulmonary embolism case was identified with a total incidence of 0.15% over 3 years. With TS, we identified 325 subjects with 134 identifiable risk factors. Six patients (1.8%) were noted to be very high risk, requiring consultation with hematology. No VTEs were reported. When compared with the retrospective review, TS identified 30% more risk factors. A significant increase in the identification of family history of blood clots (P < 0.001), history of previous blood clot (P = 0.059), recurrent miscarriages in the family (P = 0.010), and smoking exposure (P = 0.062) was found. Additionally, the total cost of screening was less than the cost of prophylaxis treatment with no screening ($20.98 versus $23.51 per person, respectively).

DISCUSSION

Risk factors for VTE may be present in 32.5% of elective adolescent arthroscopic patients. A TS model for VTE identified 30% more risk factors, especially a significant family history, and was shown to be a cost-effective way to safely implement a VTE prevention program.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Central Venous Catheter-Related Deep Vein Thrombosis in the Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND

Central venous catheter (CVC) use is common in the management of critically ill children, especially those with congenital heart disease. CVCs are known to augment the risk of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), but data on CVC-associated DVTs in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) are limited. In this study, we aim to identify the incidence of and risk factors for CVC-related DVT in this high-risk population, as its complications are highly morbid.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The PC4 database and a radiologic imaging database were retrospectively reviewed for the demographics and outcomes of patients admitted to the Texas Children's Hospital CICU requiring CVC placement, as well as the incidence of DVT and its complications.

RESULTS

Between January 2017 and December 2017, 1215 central lines were placed over 851 admissions. DVT was diagnosed in 8% of admissions with a CVC, 29% of which demonstrated thrombus in the inferior vena cava. The risk factors significantly associated with DVT included the presence of >1 line, higher total line hours, longer intubation times, and extended CICU stay. A diagnosis of low cardiac output syndrome, sepsis, central line-associated bloodstream infection, and cardiac catheterization were also significant risk factors. Interestingly, cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass appeared to be protective of clot development. DVT was a highly significant risk factor for mortality in these patients.

CONCLUSIONS

CVC-related DVTs in critically ill children with congenital heart disease are associated with higher risks of morbidity and mortality, highlighting the need for well-designed studies to determine the best preventative and treatment strategies and to establish guidelines for appropriate monitoring and follow-up of these patients.

Venous thromboembolism following inpatient pediatric surgery: Analysis of 153,220 patients

PURPOSE

To evaluate venous thromboembolism (VTE) rates and risk factors following inpatient pediatric surgery.

METHODS

153,220 inpatient pediatric surgical patients were selected from the 2012-2015 NSQIP-P database. Demographic and perioperative variables were documented. Primary outcome was VTE requiring treatment within 30 postoperative days. Secondary outcomes included length of stay (LOS) and 30-day mortality. Prediction models were generated using logistic regression. Mortality and time to VTE were assessed using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis.

RESULTS

305 patients (0.20%) developed 296 venous thromboses and 12 pulmonary emboli (3 cooccurrences). Median time to VTE was 9 days. Most VTEs (81%) occurred predischarge. Subspecialties with highest VTE rates were cardiothoracic (0.72%) and general surgery (0.28%). No differences were seen for elective vs. urgent/emergent procedures (p = 0.106). All-cause mortality VTE patients was 1.2% vs. 0.2% in patients without VTE (p < 0.001). After stratifying by American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class, no mortality differences remained when ASA < 3. Preoperative, postoperative, and total LOSs were longer for patients with VTE (p < 0.001 for each). ASA ≥ 3, preoperative sepsis, ventilator dependence, enteral/parenteral feeding, steroid use, preoperative blood transfusion, gastrointestinal disease, hematologic disorders, operative time, and age were independent predictors (C-statistic = 0.83).

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric postsurgical patients have unique risk factors for developing VTE.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

What's New in Pediatric Orthopaedic Quality, Safety, and Value? A Systematic Review With Results of the 2016 POSNA Quality, Safety, and Value Initiative (QSVI) Challenge

BACKGROUND

Enhancing the safety, quality, and value of care provided is a point of emphasis for modern health care systems. We performed a review of recent literature to highlight those efforts relevant to pediatric musculoskeletal care.

METHODS

We searched the PubMed database for all papers related to quality improvement, patient safety, and/or value in pediatric orthopaedics published from October 1, 2012 to October 31, 2017, yielding 193 papers.

RESULTS

A total of 36 papers were selected for review based upon new findings. Papers were selected based on significant contributions in the following categories: casting safety, antibiotic stewardship/infection prevention, perioperative care pathways, blood conservation, venous thromboembolic disease prevention, and imaging safety/appropriateness.

CONCLUSIONS

There have been numerous advances in safety, quality, and value in pediatric orthopaedic care. Quality improvement efforts emphasizing provider education and safety monitoring can lead to a decrease in cast-related complications. Perioperative care pathways and bundles are associated with a decrease risk of surgical site infection and decreased length of stay in pediatric spinal deformity surgery. Increased scrutiny has been placed on the value of routine follow-up radiographs in pediatric fracture and spinal deformity care.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4-literature review.

Early venous thromboembolism at the beginning of palliative chemotherapy is a poor prognostic factor in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer: a retrospective study

Background

This study investigated the prognostic effects of venous thromboembolism (VTE)-related factors in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer receiving palliative chemotherapy. Predictive factors for VTE were also investigated.

Methods

A total of 216 patients diagnosed with metastatic pancreatic cancer who received gemcitabine-based palliative chemotherapy at our institution were retrospectively evaluated.

Results

VTE occurred in 51 (23.6%) patients during treatment and did not affect survival. However, patients who were diagnosed with VTE at the beginning of chemotherapy showed poor prognosis compared with patients diagnosed with VTE during chemotherapy: all patients (hazard ratio [HR] 1.897, p = 0.008); patients diagnosed with VTE (HR = 3.768, p = 0.001). Low serum sodium (Na) (< 135 mmol/L) and high Khorana score (≥3) were strong predictive factors of early VTE (odds ratio [OR] 5.109; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 1.010–25.845; p = 0.049 for Khorana score, OR 10.304; 95% CI = 1.036–102.466; p = 0.047) for hyponatremia).

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that occurrence and detection of VTE in the early period of chemotherapy was the most significant VTE-related prognostic factor in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer receiving chemotherapy. Prediction using the Khorana score and serum Na levels would be helpful in early diagnosis of VTE.

Risk factors for venous thromboembolic events in pediatric surgical patients: Defining indications for prophylaxis

BACKGROUND

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in pediatric surgical patients is a rare event. The risk factors for VTE in pediatric general surgery patients undergoing abdominopelvic procedures are unknown.

STUDY DESIGN

The American College of Surgeon's National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric (NSQIP-P) database (2012-2015) was queried for patients with VTE after abdominopelvic general surgery procedures. Patient and operative variables were assessed to identify risk factors associated with VTE and develop a pediatric risk score.

RESULTS

From 2012-2015, 68 of 34,813 (0.20%) patients who underwent abdominopelvic general surgery procedures were diagnosed with VTE. On multivariate analysis, there was no increased risk of VTE based on concomitant malignancy, chemotherapy, inflammatory bowel disease, or laparoscopic surgical approach, while a higher rate of VTE was identified among female patients. The odds of experiencing VTE were increased on stepwise regression for patients older than 15 years and those with preexisting renal failure or a diagnosis of septic shock, patients with American Society of Anesthesia (ASA) classification ≥ 2, and for anesthesia time longer than 2 h. The combination of age > 15 years, ASA classification ≥ 2, anesthesia time > 2 h, renal failure, and septic shock was included in a model for predicting risk of VTE (AUC = 0.907, sensitivity 84.4%, specificity 88.2%).

CONCLUSION

VTE is rare in pediatric patients, but prediction modeling may help identify those patients at heightened risk. Additional studies are needed to validate the factors identified in this study in a risk assessment model as well as to assess the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of prophylaxis methods.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective comparative study.

Risk of deep venous thrombosis in elective neurosurgical procedures: a prospective, Doppler ultrasound-based study in children 12 years of age or younger

OBJECTIVE The risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) from deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is significant in neurosurgical patients. VTE is considered a leading cause of preventable hospital deaths and preventing DVT is a closely monitored quality metric, often tied to accreditation, hospital ratings, and reimbursement. Adult protocols include prophylaxis with anticoagulant medications. Children's hospitals may adopt adult protocols, although the incidence of DVT and the risk or efficacy of treatment is not well defined. The incidence of DVT in children is likely less than in adults, although there is very little prospectively collected information. Most consider the risk of DVT to be extremely low in children 12 years of age or younger. However, this consideration is based on tradition and retrospective reviews of trauma databases. In this study, the authors prospectively evaluated pediatric patients undergoing a variety of elective neurosurgical procedures and performed Doppler ultrasound studies before and after surgery. METHODS A total of 100 patients were prospectively enrolled in this study. All of the patients were between the ages of 1 month and 12 years and were undergoing elective neurosurgical procedures. The 91 patients who completed the protocol received a bilateral lower-extremity Doppler ultrasound examination within 48 hours prior to surgery. Patients did not receive either medical or mechanical DVT prophylaxis during or after surgery. The ultrasound examination was repeated within 72 hours after surgery. An independent, board-certified radiologist evaluated all sonograms. We prospectively collected data, including potential risk factors, details of surgery, and details of the clinical course. All patients were followed clinically for at least 1 year. RESULTS There was no clinical or ultrasound evidence of DVT or VTE in any of the 91 patients. There was no clinical evidence of VTE in the 9 patients who did not complete the protocol. CONCLUSIONS In this prospective study, no DVTs were found in 91 patients evaluated by ultrasound and 9 patients followed clinically. While the study is underpowered to give a definitive incidence, the data suggest that the risk of DVT and VTE is very low in children undergoing elective neurosurgical procedures. Prophylactic protocols designed for adults may not apply to pediatric patients. Clinical trial registration no.: NCT02037607 (clinicaltrials.gov).