β-Glucans obtained from fungus for wound healing: A review

The cell surface of fungus contains a large number of β-glucans, which exhibit various biological activities such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidation. Fungal β-glucans with highly branched structure show great potential as wound healing reagents, because they can stimulate the expression of many immune- and inflammatory-related factors beneficial to wound healing. Recently, the wound healing ability of many fungal β-glucans have been investigated in animals and clinical trials. Studies have proved that fungal β-glucans can promote fibroblasts proliferation, collagen deposition, angiogenesis, and macrophage infiltration during the wound healing process. However, the development of fungal β-glucans as wound healing reagents is not systematically reviewed till now. This review discusses the wound healing studies of β-glucans obtained from different fungal species. The structure characteristics, extraction methods, and biological functions of fungal β-glucans with wound healing ability are summarized. Researches about fungal β-glucan-containing biomaterials and structurally modified β-glucans for wound healing are also involved.

β-Glucan extracts as high-value multifunctional ingredients for skin health: A review

β-Glucans, which are naturally present in cereals, yeast, and mushrooms, have gained attention as a potential natural source for functional foods and pharmaceuticals. Due to the availability of β-glucans from several sources, different extraction methods can be employed to obtain high purity extracts that can be further modified to enhance their solubility or other biological properties. Apart from their known ability to interact with the immune system, β-glucans possess specific properties that could benefit overall skin health and prevent age-related signs, including soothing and antioxidant activities. As a result, the use of β-glucans to mitigate damage caused by environmental stressors or skin-related issues that accelerate skin aging or trigger chronic inflammation may represent a promising, natural, eco-friendly, and cost-effective approach to maintaining skin homeostasis balance. This review outlines β-glucan extraction methodologies, molecular structure, functionalization approaches, and explores skin-related benefits of β-glucans, along with an overview of related products in the market.

Analysis of genetic diversity among Chinese Cyclocybe chaxingu strains using ISSR and SRAP markers

Background

Cyclocybe chaxingu is an edible and medicinal fungal species commonly cultivated in China. The major problems currently facing by growers of C. chaxingu is the random labeling of strains and strains aging and degeneration. Therefore, an evaluation of genetic diversity is essential for the conservation and reproducing programs of this species.

Methods

In the present study, 24 widely cultivated strains were collected from the main producing areas of China, and the genetic diversity analysis was performed. DNA polymorphism among these Chinese C. chaxingu strains was analyzed using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers.

Results

Eight ISSR primers amplified a total of 75 DNA fragments of which 61 (81.33%) were polymorphic. Fifteen SRAP primer combinations amplified 166 fragments of which 132 (79.52%) were polymorphic. Cluster analysis showed that the C. chaxnigu strains fall into five groups with a genetic distance values ranging from 0.06 to 0.60 by ISSR analysis, while the SRAP analysis divided the test strains into four groups within the range of genetic distance from 0.03 to 0.57. The results of the present study reveal a high level of genetic diversity among the widely cultivated C. chaxingu strains.

Isolation, structure elucidation, and biological activity of polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrata

The optimum extraction condition for the Saussurea involucrata polysaccharide (SIP) was determined to be a temperature of 80 °C, time 2 h, and a liquid-solid ratio of 30 mL/g with a yield of 11.37 %. An acidic homogenous polysaccharide, namely SIP-II was isolated from Saussurea involucrate through anion exchange and gel permeation column chromatography. The structure of the SIP-II was elucidated through the combination of HPLC, GC-MS, IC, peroxide oxidation, smith degradation, methylation, NMR analysis, it was mainly composed of arabinose, rhamnose, galactose, galacturonic acid, and glucose with the molar ratio of 19.85:20.30: 27.12:11.95:8.69 with a molecular weight of 237,570 Da. The glycosidic linkages of SIP-II mainly composed of →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2→, T-Araf, →1)-β-D-GalpA-(4→, →1)-β-D-Galp-(3,6→, →1)-β-D-Galp-(6→, →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2,4→, T-Galp, and →1)-α-L-Araf-(5→. Meanwhile, the structures were characterized through extensive analysis of UV, FT-IR, SEM-EDX, CD, XRD, and TG. SIP-II possessed a remarkable anti-inflammatory activity by effectively inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammation-related mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, and the anti-inflammatory response of SIP-II might be attributed to the regulation of the NF-κB, MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways. The results showed that polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrate could be a potential ingredient in the functional food and pharmaceutical industry.

Mushrooms and immunity

In the wide field of nutraceuticals, the effects of mushrooms on immunity, cancer and including autoimmunity have been proposed for centuries but in recent years a growing interest has led scientists to elucidate which specific compounds have bioactive properties and through which mechanisms. Glucans and specific proteins are responsible for most of the biological effects of mushrooms, particularly in terms of immunomodulatory and anti-tumor results. Proteins with bioactive effects include lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs), ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs), ribonucleases, laccases, among others. At the present status of knowledge, numerous studies have been performed on cell lines and murine models while only a few clinical trials have been conducted. As in most cases of dietary components, the multitude of variables implicated in the final effect and an inadequate standardization are expected to affect the observed differences, thus making the available evidence insufficient to justify the treatment of human diseases with mushrooms extracts. We will herein provide a comprehensive review and critically discussion the biochemical changes induced by different mushroom compounds as observed in in vitro studies, particularly on macrophages, dendritic cells, T cells, and NK cells, compared to in vivo and human studies. Additional effects are represented by lipids which constitute a minor part of mushrooms but may have a role in reducing serum cholesterol levels or phenols acting as antioxidant and reducing agents. Human studies provide a minority of available data, as well illustrated by a placebo-controlled study of athletes treated with β-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus. Variables influencing study outcomes include different mushrooms strains, growing conditions, developmental stage, part of mushroom used, extraction method, and storage conditions. We foresee that future rigorous research will be needed to determine the potential of mushroom compounds for human health to reproduce the effects of some compounds such as lentinan which a metaanalysis demonstrated to increase the efficacy of chemotherapy in the treatment of lung cancer and in the improvement of the patients quality of life.

The Role of Bioactive Compounds and other Metabolites from Mushrooms against Skin Disorders- A Systematic Review Assessing their Cosmeceutical and Nutricosmetic Outcomes

Bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms have been shown to present promising potential as cosmeceutical or nutricosmetic ingredients. Scientific data reviewed herein showed that extracts prepared from medicinal and edible mushrooms and their individual metabolites presented antiinflammatory, antioxidant, photoprotective, antimicrobial, anti-tyrosinase, anti-elastase, and anticollagenase activities. These metabolites can be utilised as ingredients to suppress the severity of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, offer photoprotection to the skin, and correct Hyperpigmentation. However, studies regarding the molecular mechanism behind the mentioned bioactivities are still lacking. Challenges associated with the use of mushroom extracts and their associated metabolites as cosmeceutical and nutricosmetic ingredients include several steps from the fruiting bodies to the final product: extraction optimization, estimation of the efficacy and safety claims, the use of micro and nanocarriers to allow for controlled release and the pros and cons associated with the use of extracts vs individual compounds. This systematic review highlights that mushrooms contain diverse biomolecules that can be sustainably used in the development of nutricosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations. Reports regarding stability, compatibility, and safety assessment, but also toxicological studies are still needed to be considered. Furthermore, some of the constraints and limitations hindering the development of this type of ingredients still require long-term studies to achieve major breakthroughs.

Characterization and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of an Exopolysaccharide from Submerged Mycelial Culture of Schizophyllum commune

Background and Purpose: Mushroom polysaccharides have attracted attention in food and pharmacology fields because of their many biological activities. The structure characterization and anti-inflammatory activity of exopolysaccharide from Schizophyllum commune were evaluated in present study. Methods: An exopolysaccharide from a submerged mycelial fermentation of S. commune was obtained using DEAE-52 cellulose and Sephadex G-150 chromatography. The molecular weight (MW), monosaccharide compositions, chemical compositions, methylation analysis, circular dichroism studies, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy were investigated. Results: It was a homogeneous protein-bound heteropolysaccharide with MW of 2,900 kDa. The exopolysaccharide contained a β-(1→3) glycosidic backbone, (1→4)- and (1→6)- glycosidic side chain, and high amount of glucose. The anti-inflammatory activity of exopolysaccharide was assessed by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and 5- lipoxygenase (5-LOX) from macrophages. This exopolysaccharide significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited lipopolysaccharides-induced iNOS expression levels in the cells in a dose-dependent manner. Conclusion: It indicated significant anti-inflammatory effects, which showed that exopolysaccharide might be exploited as an effective anti-inflammatory agent for application in NO-related disorders such as inflammation and cancer.

Inflammatory modulation effect of glycopeptide from Ganoderma capense (Lloyd) Teng

Glycopeptide from Ganoderma capense (Lloyd) Teng (GCGP) injection is widely used in kinds of immune disorders, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms of how GCGP could interfere with immune cell function. In the present study, we have found that GCGP had inflammatory modulation effects on macrophage cells to maintain NO production and iNOS expression at the normal level. Furthermore, western blot analysis showed that the underlying mechanism of immunomodulatory effect of GCGP involved NF-κB p65 translation, IκB phosphorylation, and degradation; NF-κB inhibitor assays also confirmed the results. In addition, competition study showed that GCGP could inhibit LPS from binding to macrophage cells. Our data indicates that GCGP, which may share the same receptor(s) expressed by macrophage cells with LPS, exerted immunomodulatory effect in a NF-κB-dependent signaling pathway in macrophages.

Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn) plumule polysaccharide protects the spleen and liver from spontaneous inflammation in non-obese diabetic mice by modulating pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokine gene expression

A novel lotus plumule polysaccharide (LPPS) was administered to non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice for 15weeks to evaluate the protective effects of LPPS on type 1 diabetes. After the 15-week feeding experiment, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 expressions in the spleen, liver and kidney of the experimental mice were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. The results showed that LPPS significantly (p<0.05) decreased the absolute weights of the enlarged spleens in the NOD mice in a dose-dependent manner, inhibited pro-inflammatory TNF-α and IL-6 cytokine production and decreased the secretion ratio of IL-6/IL-10 in splenocyte cultures. LPPS markedly decreased the relative expression of pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokine genes (TNF-α/IL-10 and IL-6/IL-10) in the livers of NOD mice. Our results suggest that LPPS protected the spleen and liver from spontaneous inflammation in NOD mice by modulating pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokine gene expression.

Amelioration of streptozotocin-induced diabetes by Agrocybe chaxingu polysaccharide

The aim of this study was to investigate the preventive effect of Agrocybe chaxingu polysaccharide on streptozocin (STZ)-induced pancreatic beta-cells destruction. Agrocybe chaxingu polysaccharide markedly reduced nitric oxide (NO) production and iNOS expression levels in RINm5F cells in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, Agrocybe chaxingu polysaccharide significantly inhibited iNOS expression and blood glucose levels in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that it enhanced pancreatic beta-cells resistance to destruction by STZ. These results suggest that Agrocybe chaxingu polysaccharide may have value as a therapeutic agent against diabetes mellitus.