Basic data on the hematology, serum biochemistry, urology, and organ weights of beagle dogs

Toxicity and Toxicokinetics of a Four-Week Repeated Gavage of Levamisole in Male Beagle Dogs: A Good Laboratory Practice Study

Levamisole (LVM) is considered an immunomodulatory agent that has the potential to treat various cancer and inflammation diseases. However, there is still much debate surrounding the toxicokinetic and toxicological information of LVM. Therefore, it is crucial to assess its toxicity to provide useful data for future human LVM risk assessments. In this study, a barrier environment was established under the guidance of good laboratory practice (GLP) at the Fujian Center for New Drug Safety Evaluation. Male beagle dogs were orally administered with 5, 15, and 30 mg/kg of LVM daily for four weeks. Toxicity assessment was based on various factors such as mortality, clinical signs, food and water consumption, body weight, body temperature, electrocardiogram, ophthalmological examination, hematology, serum biochemistry, organ/body coefficients, histopathological study, and toxicokinetic analysis. The results of this study showed that LVM did not exhibit any significant toxicological effects on beagle dogs at the exposure levels tested. A no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of LVM was set at 30 mg/kg/day for male beagle dogs, which is equivalent to a 12-fold clinical dose in humans. Moreover, the repeated exposure to LVM for four weeks did not lead to any bioaccumulation. These findings provide valuable insights for future human LVM risk assessments.

Sheep as a large animal model for hearing research: comparison to common laboratory animals and humans

Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), caused by pathology in the cochlea, is the most common type of hearing loss in humans. It is generally irreversible with very few effective pharmacological treatments available to prevent the degenerative changes or minimise the impact. Part of this has been attributed to difficulty of translating "proof-of-concept" for novel treatments established in small animal models to human therapies. There is an increasing interest in the use of sheep as a large animal model. In this article, we review the small and large animal models used in pre-clinical hearing research such as mice, rats, chinchilla, guinea pig, rabbit, cat, monkey, dog, pig, and sheep to humans, and compare the physiology, inner ear anatomy, and some of their use as model systems for SNHL, including cochlear implantation surgeries. Sheep have similar cochlear anatomy, auditory threshold, neonatal auditory system development, adult and infant body size, and number of birth as humans. Based on these comparisons, we suggest that sheep are well-suited as a potential translational animal model that bridges the gap between rodent model research to the clinical use in humans. This is especially in areas looking at changes across the life-course or in specific areas of experimental investigation such as cochlear implantation and other surgical procedures, biomedical device development and age-related sensorineural hearing loss research. Combined use of small animals for research that require higher throughput and genetic modification and large animals for medical translation could greatly accelerate the overall translation of basic research in the field of auditory neuroscience from bench to clinic.

Effect of Pinus taeda Hydrolyzed Lignin on Biochemical Profile, Oxidative Status, and Semen Quality of Healthy Dogs

Sub-fertility represents a frequent challenge in canine reproduction. The use of micronutrients and/or additives was investigated as an approach to improve sperm quality, which are the main constraints on reproduction in canine species. Although some information is available about the effect of daily supplementation with substances presenting antioxidant/antioxidative activity on semen quality, this study aimed to observe the effect of a polyphenolic mix of substances derived from hydroxylation of Pinus taeda lignin (PTHL). For the trial, 40 male dogs were involved, 20 received PTHL for 90 days and 20 were left untreated, serving as a control group. Every 30 days, blood and semen samples were collected and analyzed. The biochemical profile of both groups was not affected by treatment and time (p > 0.05). Differently, dogs that received PTHL showed higher blood superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity (p < 0.01). Moreover, the dietary addition of PTHL can significantly increase the semen volume, concentration, and spermatozoa motility (p < 0.01) in healthy dogs. PTHL supplementation represents a good way to enhance the semen quality of dogs and improve the antioxidant status of animals.

Research-Relevant Clinical Pathology Resources: Emphasis on Mice, Rats, Rabbits, Dogs, Minipigs, and Non-Human Primates

Clinical pathology testing for investigative or biomedical research and for preclinical toxicity and safety assessment in laboratory animals is a distinct specialty requiring an understanding of species specific and other influential variables on results and interpretation. This review of clinical pathology principles and testing recommendations in laboratory animal species aims to provide a useful resource for researchers, veterinary specialists, toxicologists, and clinical or anatomic pathologists.

A Physiologically Based in Silico Tool to Assess the Risk of Drug-Related Crystalluria

Drug precipitation in the nephrons of the kidney can cause drug-induced crystal nephropathy (DICN). To aid mitigation of this risk in early drug discovery, we developed a physiologically based in silico model to predict DICN in rats, dogs, and humans. At a minimum, the likelihood of DICN is determined by the level of systemic exposure to the molecule, the molecule's physicochemical properties and the unique physiology of the kidney. Accordingly, the proposed model accounts for these properties in order to predict drug exposure relative to solubility along the nephron. Key physiological parameters of the kidney were codified in a manner consistent with previous reports. Quantitative structure-activity relationship models and in vitro assays were used to estimate drug-specific physicochemical inputs to the model. The proposed model was calibrated against urinary excretion data for 42 drugs, and the utility for DICN prediction is demonstrated through application to 20 additional drugs.

Method for Distinguishing Humans and Animals in Vital Signs Monitoring Using IR-UWB Radar

Radar has been widely applied in many scenarios as a critical remote sensing tool for non-contact vital sign monitoring, particularly for sleep monitoring and heart rate measurement within the home environment. For non-contact monitoring with radar, interference from house pets is an important issue that has been neglected in the past. Many animals have respiratory frequencies similar to those of humans, and they are easily mistaken for human targets in non-contact monitoring, which would trigger a false alarm because of incorrect physiological parameters from the animal. In this study, humans and common pets in families, such as dogs, cats, and rabbits, were detected using an impulse radio ultrawideband (IR-UWB) radar, and the echo signals were analyzed in the time and frequency domains. Subsequently, based on the distinct in-body structure between humans and animals, we propose a parameter, the respiratory and heartbeat energy ratio (RHER), which reflects the contribution rate of breathing and heartbeat in the detected vital signs. Combining this parameter with the energy index, we developed a novel scheme to distinguish between humans and animals. In the developed scheme, after background noise removal and direct-current component suppression, an energy indicator is used to initially identify the target. The signal is then decomposed using a variational mode decomposition algorithm, and the variational intrinsic mode functions that represent human respiration and heartbeat components are obtained and utilized to calculate the RHER parameter. Finally, the RHER index is applied to rapidly distinguish between humans and animals. Our experimental results demonstrate that the proposed approach more effectively distinguishes between humans and animals in terms of monitoring vital signs than the existing methods. Furthermore, its rapidity and need for only minimal calculation resources enable it to meet the needs of real-time monitoring.

Absolute Quantitation of Drug-Metabolizing Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Accessory Proteins in Dog Liver Microsomes Using Label-Free Standard-Free Analysis Reveals Interbreed Variability

Dogs are commonly used in human and veterinary pharmaceutical development. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling using recombinant cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes requires accurate estimates of CYP abundance, particularly in liver. However, such estimates are currently available for only seven CYPs, which were determined in a limited number of livers from one dog breed (beagle). In this study, we used a label-free shotgun proteomics method to quantitate 11 CYPs (including four CYPs not previously measured), cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase, and cytochrome b5 in liver microsomes from 59 dogs representing four different breeds and mixed-breed dogs. Validation included showing correlation with CYP marker activities, immunoquantified protein, as well as CYP1A2 and CYP2C41 null allele genotypes. Abundance values largely agreed with those previously published. Average CYP abundance was highest (>120 pmol/mg protein) for CYP2D15 and CYP3A12; intermediate (40-89 pmol/mg) for CYP1A2, CYP2B11, CYP2E1, and CYP2C21; and lowest (<12 pmol/mg) for CYP2A13, CYP2A25, CYP2C41, CYP3A26, and CYP1A1. The CYP2C41 gene was detected in 12 of 58 (21%) livers. CYP2C41 protein abundance averaged 8.2 pmol/mg in those livers, and was highest (19 pmol/mg) in the only liver with two CYP2C41 gene copies. CYP1A2 protein was not detected in the only liver homozygous for the CYP1A2 stop codon mutation. Large breed-associated differences were observed for CYP2B11 (P < 0.0001; ANOVA) but not for other CYPs. Research hounds and Beagles had the highest CYP2B11 abundance; mixed-breed dogs and Chihuahua were intermediate; whereas greyhounds had the lowest abundance. These results provide the most comprehensive estimates to date of CYP abundance and variability in canine liver. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This work provides the most comprehensive quantitative analysis to date of the drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 proteome in dogs that will serve as a valuable reference for physiologically based scaling and modeling used in drug development and research. This study also revealed high interindividual variation and dog breed-associated differences in drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450 expression that may be important for predicting drug disposition variability among a genetically diverse canine population.

Catheter-Based Renal Denervation Attenuates Kidney Interstitial Fibrosis in a Canine Model of High-Fat Diet-Induced Hypertension

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Catheter-based renal denervation (RDN) has emerged as an innovative interventional approach for reducing blood pressure (BP), suppressing ventricular substrate remodeling, and attenuating heart failure, which suggests that it might reduce kidney fibrosis in a canine model of high-fat diet-induced hypertension. This study thus sought to assess whether RDN could reduce kidney fibrosis and halt the progression of renal impairment in a canine model of high-fat diet-induced hypertension.

METHODS

Thirty-two beagles were randomized into either the normal control group (normal diet, n = 10) or the hypertension group (high-fat diet, n = 22). After successful establishment of the model, the hypertension model group was randomized to either the RDN group (n = 9) or the sham-surgery group (n = 8). Renal artery angiography, BP, heart rate (HR), and blood and urine biochemistry results were assessed at 1, 3, and 6 months after surgery. Canines were sacrificed at 6 months after surgery. The extent of kidney interstitial fibrosis, transforming growth factor-beta 1, alpha-smooth muscle actin, connective tissue growth factor, and E-cadherin protein were measured.

RESULTS

The group fed a high-fat diet had significantly (p ˂ 0.05) increased body weight, BP, and HR and higher levels of urine albumin, serum noradrenaline (NE), and angiotensin II (AngII) than the control group. The sham-surgery group and RDN group also had higher levels than the control group (p ˂ 0.05). Compared with the sham-surgery group, the RDN group had lower BP, urine albumin, serum NE, and AngII and less fibrotic tissue (all p ˂ 0.05).

CONCLUSION

RDN reduced BP, slowed progression of albuminuria, and suppressed renal remodeling in a canine model of high-fat diet-induced hypertension.

Restoration of p53 Function in Ovarian Cancer Mediated by Gold Nanoparticle-Based EGFR Targeted Gene Delivery System

Targeted gene delivery of wild type tumor suppressor gene p53 is a promising approach to inhibit the progression of ovarian cancer. Although several gene delivery vehicles have been reported earlier, there is paucity for targeted delivery of wild type p53 to ovarian cancer using gold nanoparticles. As it is well-known that EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) is overexpressed in ovarian cancer, in this study we hypothesized that the FDA approved monoclonal antibody C225 (cetuximab) that targets EGFR could be used for targeted delivery of wild type p53 gene. With this impetus, we devised an approach wherein cationic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were employed to generate gold nanoparticle-based drug delivery system (DDS, Au-C225-p53DNA where p53DNA is pCMVp53 plasmid) that was formulated and characterized by biochemical and biophysical methods. The nanoconjugate complexed with DNA (Au-C225-p53DNA) is serum-stable and protects the bound DNA from digestion by DNase-I. Additionally, in vitro reporter gene expression assays demonstrated efficient and specific gene transfection in EGFR overexpressing SK-OV-3 cells. Further, the intraperitoneal administration of Au-C225-p53DNA in SK-OV-3 xenograft mouse model displayed significant tumor targeting and tumor regression. Altogether, these studies indicated a promising nanoparticle-based approach for targeting ovarian cancers caused by mutated p53.

Perinatal veterinary medicine-related evaluation in hematological and serum biochemical profiles of experimental beagles throughout pregnancy and parturition

BACKGROUND

The aims of this study were (a) to ascertain age-related changes in the reference values in hematological and serum biochemical examinations of beagles, and (b) to clarify the changes in these findings, including acute phase proteins and oxidative stress, throughout pregnancy and after parturition.

METHODS

Clinicopathological parameters were measured in young beagles at 6, 9 and 12 months and in adult beagles aged from 24 to 60 months. Likewise, pregnant beagles were investigated throughout the pregnancy and after parturition.

RESULTS

Apparent age-related changes were found in erythrocytic parameters during the growth and development of beagles. Most of the parameters (total protein, albumin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, urate, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine kinase (CK) exhibited age-dependent transitions. White cell count significantly increased after 30 days of pregnancy. The values of erythrocytic parameters moderately decreased during the second half of the pregnancy. Triglycerides, total cholesterol, free cholesterol and phospholipid concentrations increased in the mid- and late stages of pregnancy. ALP, lactate dehydrogenase, CK and cholinesterase activities markedly increased during pregnancy and/or after parturition. C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations gradually increased and reached a maximum after 30-40 days of pregnancy. Serum amyloid A (SAA) levels markedly increased at 30 days of pregnancy before subsiding, and then increased again 3 days after parturition. Reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) showed significant increases after 30 and 40 days of pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Reference values for hematological and serum biochemical examinations should be used for health evaluation of dogs, taking sex, age and the stage of pregnancy into consideration. Measurements of CRP, SAA and d-ROM levels are also useful for assessing maternal conditions in mid-pregnancy.

Utility and Prognostic Significance of Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio in Dogs with Septic Peritonitis

Systemic inflammation is known to cause WBC abnormalities, specifically neutrophilia and lymphopenia. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is a simple and affordable biomarker that has been used in human clinical settings of sepsis but has not been investigated in veterinary species. We evaluated NLR in dogs with septic and nonseptic systemic inflammatory diseases and compared with a healthy dog population. An NLR ≥6 had an 84.39% sensitivity and 86.95% specificity to identify dogs with systemic inflammatory states; however, no ratio distinguished septic and nonseptic causes. The NLR was not associated with length of hospitalization, morbidity based on the acute patient physiologic laboratory evaluation scoring system, or mortality. The disassociation may be due to the retrospective nature of the study, including a restricted population size and acquisition of only a one-time blood sample. NLR is currently of limited use for diagnosis and prognosis in systemic inflammatory states in dogs, and larger, prospective studies are necessary to further evaluate NLR.

Biochemical composition of fetal fluids in at term, normal developed, healthy, viable dogs and preliminary data from pathologic littermates

A proper canine neonatal assistance, required to reduce the high perinatal loss rate, imply a full knowledge about the fetal-to-neonatal physiology. Because fetal fluids play an important role throughout mammals pregnancy, influencing fetal growth and development, fetal well being, and contributing to guarantee the most suitable environment for the fetus, the knowledge about fetal fluids biochemical composition is of major importance. At first, the biochemical composition of fetal fluids collected by normal developed, healthy and viable newborns, is necessary to depict the normal features, and represent the first step for the further detection of abnormalities associated to fetal/neonatal distress and useful for the early identification of newborns needing special attention, immediately after birth. The present study was aimed to define the biochemical composition of amniotic and allantoic fluids collected from fetus delivered by caesarean section at term of pregnancy. To reduce the possible confounding effect of maternal labor or troubles at parturition, fetal fluids were collected only from puppies born by elective caesaeran section, at term of normal pregnancies. Fetal fluids from 76 puppies, 70 normal and six pathologic newborns, born by elective caesarean section were collected and analyzed for alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine-kinase (CK), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine, urea, amylase, lipase, gamma-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT), triglycerides, cholesterol, total proteins, albumin, globulins, glucose, magnesium, potassium, chloride, sodium, calcium, phosphorus and osmolarity. No significant differences were found between biochemical composition of amniotic or allantoic fluid in normal and pathologic newborns, maybe due to the small number of the pathologic puppies. Although some correlations between the two fluids were found (albumin, phosphorus, glucose and triglycerides), the results showed significant differences between the amniotic and allantoic biochemical composition (for all the parameters, except of alanine aminotransferase, triglycerides, cholesterol, albumin, amylase and glucose), suggesting that diverse sources could concur to the final composition of each fluid. A wide variability within and among litters was found for both amniotic and allantoic biochemical composition, and for some parameters an influence of breed body size (amniotic amylase, cholesterol, and allantoic calcium and glucose), maternal parity (amniotic and allantoic CK, glucose, LDH, chloride) and newborn gender (allantoic phosphorus) was found. Further investigations are needed for addressing the origin of each fetal fluid biochemical composition in the dog and also to indeep possible differences in fetal fluids biochemical composition between normal and pathologic puppies, providing potential markers for the quick identification of newborns that need special surveillance and cares immediately after birth.

Canine cancer immunotherapy studies: linking mouse and human

Despite recent major clinical breakthroughs in human cancer immunotherapy including the use of checkpoint inhibitors and engineered T cells, important challenges remain, including determining the sub-populations of patients who will respond and who will experience at times significant toxicities. Although advances in cancer immunotherapy depend on preclinical testing, the majority of in-vivo testing currently relies on genetically identical inbred mouse models which, while offering critical insights regarding efficacy and mechanism of action, also vastly underrepresent the heterogeneity and complex interplay of human immune cells and cancers. Additionally, laboratory mice uncommonly develop spontaneous tumors, are housed under specific-pathogen free conditions which markedly impacts immune development, and incompletely model key aspects of the tumor/immune microenvironment. The canine model represents a powerful tool in cancer immunotherapy research as an important link between murine models and human clinical studies. Dogs represent an attractive outbred combination of companion animals that experience spontaneous cancer development in the setting of an intact immune system. This allows for study of complex immune interactions during the course of treatment while also directly addressing long-term efficacy and toxicity of cancer immunotherapies. However, immune dissection requires access to robust and validated immune assays and reagents as well as appropriate numbers for statistical evaluation. Canine studies will need further optimization of these important mechanistic tools for this model to fulfill its promise as a model for immunotherapy. This review aims to discuss the canine model in the context of existing preclinical cancer immunotherapy models to evaluate both its advantages and limitations, as well as highlighting its growth as a powerful tool in the burgeoning field of both human and veterinary immunotherapy.

Circumstances, Descriptive Characteristics, and Pathologic Findings in Dogs Suspected of Starving

The authors reviewed the case circumstances, population characteristics, gross, and histopathologic findings in 40 cases of emaciated dogs with a suspected diagnosis of starvation. The dogs’ estimated age ranged from 3 months to geriatric. Nineteen breeds were represented, including small-breed ( n = 11), large-breed ( n = 13), and pit bull–type ( n = 16) dogs. The median body condition score was 1 out of 9 (Purina scale). Various diseases were identified as the cause of death in 7 dogs, while the cause of death in the other 33 dogs was starvation due to exogenous causes (SEC). Circumstances associated exclusively with SEC included being found in a vacated residence and death during temperature extremes or severe weather. Dogs with SEC did not differ significantly from diseased dogs in body condition score, sex, neuter status, or breed category (small, large, or pit bull type). Gross findings associated exclusively with SEC included severe hair matting and traumatic injuries. Diseased dogs had an empty stomach significantly more often than SEC dogs, which frequently had food and/or foreign material in the stomach. In 5 of the 7 cases where disease was the cause of death, disease involved the gastrointestinal tract. Gross and histopathologic changes commonly found in SEC and diseased dogs included the following: gross loss of muscle mass and absence of subcuticular fat; serous atrophy of omental, perirenal, epicardial, and bone marrow fat; atrophy of the liver, skin, thyroid gland, and testicle; gastric mucosal petechiae and ecchymoses; melena; and splenic hemosiderophages.

Serum Biochemical Phenotypes in the Domestic Dog

The serum or plasma biochemical profile is essential in the diagnosis and monitoring of systemic disease in veterinary medicine, but current reference intervals typically take no account of breed-specific differences. Breed-specific hematological phenotypes have been documented in the domestic dog, but little has been published on serum biochemical phenotypes in this species. Serum biochemical profiles of dogs in which all measurements fell within the existing reference intervals were retrieved from a large veterinary database. Serum biochemical profiles from 3045 dogs were retrieved, of which 1495 had an accompanying normal glucose concentration. Sixty pure breeds plus a mixed breed control group were represented by at least 10 individuals. All analytes, except for sodium, chloride and glucose, showed variation with age. Total protein, globulin, potassium, chloride, creatinine, cholesterol, total bilirubin, ALT, CK, amylase, and lipase varied between sexes. Neutering status significantly impacted all analytes except albumin, sodium, calcium, urea, and glucose. Principal component analysis of serum biochemical data revealed 36 pure breeds with distinctive phenotypes. Furthermore, comparative analysis identified 23 breeds with significant differences from the mixed breed group in all biochemical analytes except urea and glucose. Eighteen breeds were identified by both principal component and comparative analysis. Tentative reference intervals were generated for breeds with a distinctive phenotype identified by comparative analysis and represented by at least 120 individuals. This is the first large-scale analysis of breed-specific serum biochemical phenotypes in the domestic dog and highlights potential genetic components of biochemical traits in this species.

Accuracy of Human and Veterinary Point-of-Care Glucometers for Use in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta), Sooty Mangabeys (Cercocebus atys), and Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Handheld, point-of-care glucometers are commonly used in NHP for clinical and research purposes, but whether these devices are appropriate for use in NHP is unknown. Other animal studies indicate that glucometers should be species-specific, given differences in glucose distribution between RBC and plasma; in addition, Hct and sampling site (venous compared with capillary) influence glucometer readings. Therefore, we compared the accuracy of 2 human and 2 veterinary glucometers at various Hct ranges in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) with that of standard laboratory glucose analysis. Subsequent analyses assessed the effect of hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, and sampling site on glucometer accuracy. The veterinary glucometers overestimated blood glucose (BG) values in all species by 26 to 75 mg/dL. The mean difference between the human glucometers and the laboratory analyzer was 7 mg/dL or less in all species. The human glucometers overestimated BG in hypoglycemic mangabeys by 4 mg/dL and underestimated BG in hyperglycemic mangabeys by 11 mg/dL; similar patterns occurred in rhesus macaques. Hct did not affect glucometer accuracy, but all samples were within the range at which glucometers generally are accurate in humans. BG values were significantly lower in venous than capillary samples. The current findings show that veterinary glucometers intended for companion-animal species are inappropriate for use in the studied NHP species, whereas the human glucometers showed clinically acceptable accuracy in all 3 species. Finally, potential differences between venous and capillary BG values should be considered when comparing and evaluating results.

Scientific and Regulatory Policy Committee

Recommendations (best practices) are provided by the Society of Toxicologic Pathology’s Adversity Working Group for making consistent interpretations of test article–related effects as “adverse” and assigning a “no observed adverse effect level” (NOAEL) in nonclinical toxicity studies. Adverse is a term indicating “harm” to the test animal, while nonadverse indicates lack of harm. Adverse findings in the study reports should be defined in relation to effects on the test species used and within the context of the given study. Test article–related effects should be described on their own merits, and decisions to consider them as adverse or nonadverse should be justified. Related effects may be discussed together; in particular, markers of toxicity that are not in and of themselves adverse ideally should be discussed in conjunction with the causal toxicity to determine adversity. Adverse findings should be identified in subreports (clinical data, pathology data, etc.) if sufficient information is available, and/or in the final study report as individual or grouped findings, but study NOAELs should be established at the level of the overall study report. Interpretations such as “not biologically relevant” or “not toxicologically important” should be avoided unless defined and supported by scientific rationale. Decisions defining adverse findings and the NOAEL in final study reports should combine the expertise of all contributing scientific disciplines. Where possible, use of NOAELs in data tables should be linked to explanatory text that places them in context. Ideally, in nonclinical summary documents, NOAELs from multiple studies are considered together in defining the most important adverse responses in the most sensitive species. These responses are then considered along with an understanding of their likely mechanisms, as well as other information such as variability in species sensitivity, comparative pathology, reversibility and progression, kinetics, and metabolism of the test substance to help assess human risk.

Fungal myocarditis and pericardial effusion secondary to Inonotus tropicalis (phylum Basidiomycota) in a dog

Fungal disease is a rare cause of pericardial effusion in dogs. This report describes the first case of fungal pericardial effusion and myocarditis secondary to the fungal organism Inonotus tropicalis. A 9-year-old female spayed French bulldog with a multi-year history of treatment with glucocorticoids for management of atopy was presented for exercise intolerance, ascites and weight loss. Physical examination and thoracic imaging revealed enlarged peripheral and cranial mediastinal lymph nodes, left ventricular thickening and cardiac tamponade secondary to pericardial effusion. Fine needle aspiration of the cranial mediastinal lymph node showed pyogranulomatous inflammation with short, thin and poorly septated hyphae. Culture of the aspirate yielded a fungal isolate identified as Inonotus tropicalis based on morphologic features and rRNA gene sequencing. Postmortem examination showed myocardial thickening with multifocal to coalescing, firm, white, ill-defined nodules. Histology confirmed the presence of disseminated fungal infection with extensive myocardial involvement. Inonotus tropicalis is an opportunistic poroid wood-decaying basidiomycete. Infection in this dog was likely the result of chronic immunosuppressive therapy.

Need for gender-specific pre-analytical testing: the dark side of the moon in laboratory testing

Many international organisations encourage studies in a sex-gender perspective. However, research with a gender perspective presents a high degree of complexity, and the inclusion of sex-gender variable in experiments presents many methodological questions, the majority of which are still neglected. Overcoming these issues is fundamental to avoid erroneous results. Here, pre-analytical aspects of the research, such as study design, choice of utilised specimens, sample collection and processing, animal models of diseases, and the observer's role, are discussed. Artefacts in this stage of research could affect the predictive value of all analyses. Furthermore, the standardisation of research subjects according to their lifestyles and, if female, to their life phase and menses or oestrous cycle, is urgent to harmonise research worldwide. A sex-gender-specific attention to pre-analytical aspects could produce a decrease in the time for translation from the bench to bedside. Furthermore, sex-gender-specific pre-clinical pharmacological testing will enable adequate assessment of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic actions of drugs and will enable, where appropriate, an adequate gender-specific clinical development plan. Therefore, sex-gender-specific pre-clinical research will increase the gender equity of care and will produce more evidence-based medicine.

Breed-specific hematological phenotypes in the dog: a natural resource for the genetic dissection of hematological parameters in a mammalian species

Remarkably little has been published on hematological phenotypes of the domestic dog, the most polymorphic species on the planet. Information on the signalment and complete blood cell count of all dogs with normal red and white blood cell parameters judged by existing reference intervals was extracted from a veterinary database. Normal hematological profiles were available for 6046 dogs, 5447 of which also had machine platelet concentrations within the reference interval. Seventy-five pure breeds plus a mixed breed control group were represented by 10 or more dogs. All measured parameters except mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) varied with age. Concentrations of white blood cells (WBCs), neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils and platelets, but not red blood cell parameters, all varied with sex. Neutering status had an impact on hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), MCHC, and concentrations of WBCs, neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes and platelets. Principal component analysis of hematological data revealed 37 pure breeds with distinctive phenotypes. Furthermore, all hematological parameters except MCHC showed significant differences between specific individual breeds and the mixed breed group. Twenty-nine breeds had distinctive phenotypes when assessed in this way, of which 19 had already been identified by principal component analysis. Tentative breed-specific reference intervals were generated for breeds with a distinctive phenotype identified by comparative analysis. This study represents the first large-scale analysis of hematological phenotypes in the dog and underlines the important potential of this species in the elucidation of genetic determinants of hematological traits, triangulating phenotype, breed and genetic predisposition.