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Mosa YI, Gharib AA, Abd-El Galil SY, Ali AM, Abo Remela EM. Transcriptional responses of cytokines, immunoglobulin A, and nitric oxide genes in 1-day-old chicks post Salmonella typhimurium infection: An experimental study. Open Vet J 2024; 14:200-213. [PMID: 38633162 PMCID: PMC11018442 DOI: 10.5455/ovj.2024.v14.i1.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Salmonella has become one of the hazards prevalent foodborne pathogens causing different diseases in chickens. However, Salmonella typhimurium (ST), a nonhost-specific serovar, is a major avian agent that causes severe disturbance in young chicken wellness. Aim The occurrence of Salmonella in chickens and their antimicrobial resistance were explored in this study. In addition, the immune response of 1-day-old broiler chicks, against multidrug resistant (MDR) ST infection, was also assessed at 4 and 24 hours post infection (pi) in the cecum and spleen, representing their mucosal and systemic immune responses, respectively. Methods A total of 375 samples from 130 diseased and apparently healthy broiler and layer chickens were randomly collected for Salmonella isolation, identification, and resistance profile evaluation, from farms and different clinical laboratories. The immune response of 1-day-old broiler chicks, Ross 308, against in-vivo ST infection was ascertained through the evaluation of heterophile phagocytosis and s expression of cytokines, immunoglobulin A and other immune-regulating genes in the cecum and spleen. Twenty-four, 1-day-old nonvaccinated broiler chicks were used and divided into two groups. The chicks in the infected group were orally inoculated with 0.5 ml of 2 × 108 colony forming units (CFU)/ml of MDR ST suspension, while those in the control group were taken nutrient broth. Results Seven out of 130 (5.38%) examined chickens were positive for Salmonella. All isolates (100%) were resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (AMC), cefazolin (CZ), cefoxitin (FOX), ciprofloxacin (CIP), nalidixic acid (NA), tetracycline (TE), fosfomycin (FOS), and colistin (CT) with multiple antimicrobial resistances (MARs) index range of 0.72-0.83, where none of them was resistant to meropenem (MEM). The results of immune response revealed that chicks infected with ST showed significantly different phagocytosis percentages and index values compared to controls. According to the real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) results, the transcription of IL-8, iNOS, IL-18, IgA, and IFN-γ for chicks infected by ST showed a significantly increased trend (p < 0.01) with increasing chicken age and was higher in the cecum than spleen compared to controls (p < 0.05) during 24 hours after infection. Conclusion The findings indicated a strong mucosal immune response in the chicks after the ST challenge, which reflects humoral and cellular responses. Our insight recommended the occurrence of a natural immune response stimulator at 1 day age to face the infection, and this can prevent the resistance transfer, with efficient control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine I. Mosa
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Ahlam A. Gharib
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Sara Y. Abd-El Galil
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Amira. M. Ali
- The Veterinary Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Etab M. Abo Remela
- Department of Bacteriology, Mycology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Taibah University, Medina, Saudi Arabia
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Bülbül T, Sefergil Ş, Bülbül A. Effects of Dietary Sodium Nitroprusside and N G-Nitro-L-Arginine Methyl Ester on Growth Performance, Some Organs Development Status and Immune Parameters in Broilers. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13081361. [PMID: 37106924 PMCID: PMC10135183 DOI: 10.3390/ani13081361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the effects of dietary supplementation of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide (NO) donor, and NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an NO synthase inhibitor, on growth performance, organ development, and immunity in broilers. A total of 560 one-day-old mixed-gender broiler chickens (ROSS 308) were divided into one control and seven experimental groups. The experimental groups were fed a basal diet supplemented with 25, 50, 100, and 200 ppm SNP, and 25, 50, and 100 ppm L-NAME in the starter and grower diets. Body weight gain increased in groups receiving 25-100 ppm L-NAME on day 21 and 100 ppm L-NAME on days 0-42. Feed intake increased in the group receiving 100 ppm L-NAME on all days. The feed conversion ratio improved in the group receiving 25 ppm L-NAME on days 0-21, whereas it worsened in groups with 100 and 200 ppm SNP on days 0-42. Serum antibody titers decreased in the 100 ppm L-NAME group on day 21. In conclusion, the supplementation of the NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME to the broilers' diet had a positive effect on the performance parameters, whereas the NO donor SNP worsened these parameters, especially on days 0-21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuba Bülbül
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, Milas Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Mugla 48000, Türkiye
| | - Şamil Sefergil
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Milas Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Mugla 48000, Türkiye
| | - Aziz Bülbül
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, Milas Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Mugla 48000, Türkiye
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Takahashi M, Sengan A, Khan S, Makino R, Cline MA, Tachibana T. Effect of sodium nitroprusside on feeding behavior, voluntary activity, and cloacal temperature in chicks. Physiol Behav 2022; 251:113805. [PMID: 35405204 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a well-known gaseous signaling molecule that is involved in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in vertebrates. The role of NO in physiological responses of birds has been investigated primarily using NOS inhibitors. Therefore, the effect of the absence of NO is well characterized. However, there is little knowledge on the effects of abundant NO in birds, which is the case in birds that have infections. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine if intraperitoneal (IP) and intracerebroventricular (ICV) injections of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a NO donor, affected feed intake, voluntary activity, cloacal temperature, crop emptying rate, and blood constituents in domesticated chicks (Gallus gallus) as model birds. We found that both IP and ICV injections of SNP significantly decreased feed intake while there was little effect on voluntary activity. Cloacal temperature was temporarily, but significantly, decreased by both types of injection of SNP. Additionally, both IP and ICV injections of SNP significantly decreased the crop emptying rate. The IP injection of SNP significantly increased the plasma concentrations of NO2/NO3, which are metabolites of NO, and corticosterone, and decreased the plasma glucose concentrations, while the ICV injection had no effect. The IP injection of SNP also showed the tendency to increase the nitrotyrosine level, to increase superoxide dismutase activity, and to decrease catalase activity in the plasma. These results suggest that under specific situations which produce abundant NO such as infection, NO would induce anorexia, hypothermia, inhibition of feed passage, and activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in chicks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Takahashi
- Department of Agrobiological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan
| | - Akira Sengan
- Department of Agrobiological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan
| | - Sakirul Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu, Oita 879-5593, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Makino
- Department of Agrobiological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan
| | - Mark A Cline
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 24061, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
| | - Tetsuya Tachibana
- Department of Agrobiological Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8566, Japan.
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Schilling MA, Memari S, Cattadori IM, Katani R, Muhairwa AP, Buza JJ, Kapur V. Innate Immune Genes Associated With Newcastle Disease Virus Load in Chick Embryos From Inbred and Outbred Lines. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1432. [PMID: 31281305 PMCID: PMC6596324 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) causes substantial economic losses to smallholder farmers in low- and middle-income countries with high levels of morbidity and mortality in poultry flocks. Previous investigations have suggested differing levels of susceptibility to NDV between specific inbred lines and amongst breeds of chickens, however, the mechanisms contributing to this remain poorly understood. Studies have shown that some of these differences in levels of susceptibility to NDV infection may be accounted for by variability in the innate immune response amongst various breeds of poultry to NDV infection. Recent studies, in inbred Fayoumi and Leghorn lines, uncovered conserved, breed-dependent, and subline-dependent responses. To better understand the role of innate immune genes in engendering a protective immune response, we assessed the transcriptional responses to NDV of three highly outbred Tanzanian local chicken ecotypes, the Kuchi, the Morogoro Medium, and the Ching’wekwe. Hierarchical clustering and principal coordinate analysis of the gene expression profiles of 21-day old chick embryos infected with NDV clustered in an ecotype-dependent manner and was consistent with the relative viral loads for each of the three ecotypes. The Kuchi and Morogoro Medium exhibit significantly higher viral loads than the Ching’wekwe. The results show that the outbred ecotypes with increased levels of expression of CCL4, NOS2, and SOCS1 also had higher viral loads. The higher expression of SOCS1 is inconsistent with the expression in inbred lines. These differences may uncover new mechanisms or pathways in these populations that may have otherwise been overlooked when examining the response in highly inbred lines. Taken together, our findings provide insights on the specific conserved and differentially expressed innate immune-related genes involved the response of highly outbred chicken lines to NDV. This also suggests that several of the specific innate immunity related genes identified in the current investigation may serve as markers for the selection of chickens with reduced susceptibility to NDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Schilling
- Animal Science Department, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, TZ, United States
| | - Sahar Memari
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Isabella M Cattadori
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,Applied Biological and Biosecurity Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Robab Katani
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,Applied Biological and Biosecurity Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Amandus P Muhairwa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, TZ, United States
| | - Joram J Buza
- School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, TZ, United States
| | - Vivek Kapur
- Animal Science Department, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States.,School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, TZ, United States.,Applied Biological and Biosecurity Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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Dar MA, Urwat U, Ahmad SM, Ahmad R, Kashoo ZA, Dar TA, Bhat SA, Mumtaz PT, Shabir N, Shah RA, Heidari M. Gene expression and antibody response in chicken against Salmonella Typhimurium challenge. Poult Sci 2019; 98:2008-2013. [PMID: 30597054 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pey560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is a primary avian pathogen responsible for severe intestinal pathology in younger chickens and economic losses to poultry industry. Furthermore, S. Typhimurium is also able to cause infection in humans, characterized by acute gastrointestinal disease. A study was conducted to investigate antibody response and expression kinetics of interferon gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL-12, and IL-18) genes in broiler chicken at 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15 D post infection following experimental infection of S. Typhimurium. Immunological studies showed higher titres of IgG and IgM in the infected group as compared to the age-matched un-infected control group. The Real-Time PCR-based gene expression analysis revealed significant increase of IFNγ, IL-12, and IL-18 mRNA levels in the infected group as compared to their respective controls (P < 0.05). The present study shall help in understanding the immune responses in birds, thus allowing development of more effective vaccines and vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashooq Ahmad Dar
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India.,Depatment of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Uneeb Urwat
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Syed Mudasir Ahmad
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Raashid Ahmad
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Zahid Amin Kashoo
- Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Tanveer Ali Dar
- Depatment of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Shakil Ahmad Bhat
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Peerzada Tajamul Mumtaz
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Nadeem Shabir
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Riaz Ahmad Shah
- Division of Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Mohammad Heidari
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory, 4279 E. Mount Hope Rd. East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
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Sekelova Z, Stepanova H, Polansky O, Varmuzova K, Faldynova M, Fedr R, Rychlik I, Vlasatikova L. Differential protein expression in chicken macrophages and heterophils in vivo following infection with Salmonella Enteritidis. Vet Res 2017. [PMID: 28623956 PMCID: PMC5473982 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0439-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study we compared the proteomes of macrophages and heterophils isolated from the spleen 4 days after intravenous infection of chickens with Salmonella Enteritidis. Heterophils were characterized by expression of MMP9, MRP126, LECT2, CATHL1, CATHL2, CATHL3, LYG2, LYZ and RSFR. Macrophages specifically expressed receptor proteins, e.g. MRC1L, LRP1, LGALS1, LRPAP1 and a DMBT1L. Following infection, heterophils decreased ALB and FN1, and released MMP9 to enable their translocation to the site of infection. In addition, the endoplasmic reticulum proteins increased in heterophils which resulted in the release of granular proteins. Since transcription of genes encoding granular proteins did not decrease, these genes remained continuously transcribed and translated even after initial degranulation. Macrophages increased amounts of fatty acid elongation pathway proteins, lysosomal and phagosomal proteins. Macrophages were less responsive to acute infection than heterophils and an increase in proteins like CATHL1, CATHL2, RSFR, LECT2 and GAL1 in the absence of any change in their expression at RNA level could even be explained by capturing these proteins from the external environment into which these could have been released by heterophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Sekelova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Stepanova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Polansky
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Marcela Faldynova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Fedr
- Department of Cytokinetics, Institute of Biophysics of the CAS, Kralovopolska 135, 612 65, Brno, Czech Republic.,Center of Biomolecular and Cellular Engineering, International, Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivan Rychlik
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Lenka Vlasatikova
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
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Van Goor A, Slawinska A, Schmidt CJ, Lamont SJ. Distinct functional responses to stressors of bone marrow derived dendritic cells from diverse inbred chicken lines. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 63:96-110. [PMID: 27238770 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Differences in responses of chicken bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDC) to in vitro treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), heat, and LPS + heat were identified. The Fayoumi is more disease resistant and heat tolerant than the Leghorn line. Nitric Oxide (NO) production, phagocytic ability, MHC II surface expression and mRNA expression were measured. NO was induced in BMDC from both lines in response to LPS and LPS + heat stimulation; Fayoumi produced more NO with LPS treatment. Fayoumi had higher phagocytic ability and MHC II surface expression. Gene expression for the heat-related genes BAG3, HSP25, HSPA2, and HSPH1 was strongly induced with heat and few differences existed between lines. Expression for the immune-related genes CCL4, CCL5, CD40, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-12β, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and iNOS was highly induced in response to LPS and different between lines. This research contributes to the sparse knowledge of genetic differences in chicken BMDC biology and function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna Slawinska
- Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA; Department of Animal Biochemistry and Biotechnology, UTP University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Carl J Schmidt
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Susan J Lamont
- Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
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Jain P, Singh R, Saxena VK, Singh KB, Ahmed KA, Tiwari AK, Saxena M, Sundaresan NR. In vitro rapid clearance of infectious bursal disease virus in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of chicken lines divergent for antibody response might be related to the enhanced expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Res Vet Sci 2013; 95:957-64. [PMID: 24075224 PMCID: PMC7111768 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is an acute and highly contagious viral disease of young chickens caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). An effective way to control IBDV would be to breed chickens with a reduced susceptibility to IBDV infection. In the present work, we used chickens selected for high and low specific responses to sheep red blood cells (SRBC) (H and L, respectively) to assess the susceptibility of differential immune competent animals to IBDV infection. The peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of high SRBC line (HL) and low SRBC line (LL) were infected with IBDV and viral RNA loads were determined at different time post-IBDV infection. Chicken orthologues of the T helper 1 (Th1) cytokines, interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin-2 (IL-2); a Th2 cytokine, IL-10; a pro inflammatory cytokine, IL-6; the CCL chemokines, chCCLi2, chCCLi4 and chCCLi7; colony stimulating factor, GM-CSF; and a anti-inflammatory cytokine, transforming growth factor β-2 (TGFβ-2) were quantified. The expression of chCCLi2, chCCLi4 and chCCLi7 was significantly higher in L line as compared to H line. However, in H line the viral RNA loads were significantly lower than in L line. Therefore, the upregulated chemokines might be associated with the susceptibility to IBDV. The expression of IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-6 was significantly higher in H line as compared to L line. We assume that the higher proinflammatory cytokines expression in H line might be related to the rapid clearance of virus from PBMCs. Significantly higher levels of IL-10 and TGFβ-2 mRNAs in L line might be related to the pathogenesis of IBDV. In conclusion, selection for antibody responses appears to influence the expression profiles of chemokines and cytokines against IBDV. Further, the selection for high SRBC response might improve the immuno-competence of chickens against IBDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Jain
- Disease Genetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, 243122 Bareilly, India; National Institute of Virology, Pune 411001, India.
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