Effects of Protein Level and Mangosteen Peel Pellets (Mago-pel) in Concentrate Diets on Rumen Fermentation and Milk Production in Lactating Dairy Crossbreds

Effects of Dietary Crude Protein Level of Concentrate Mix on Growth Performance, Rumen Characteristics, Blood Metabolites, and Methane Emissions in Fattening Hanwoo Steers

This study aimed to investigate the effect of varying levels of dietary crude protein (CP) on growth performance, rumen characteristics, blood metabolites, and methane emissions in fattening Hanwoo steers. Twenty-four steers, weighing 504 ± 33.0 kg (16 months old), were assigned to four dietary treatments with different CP concentrations (15, 18, 19, and 21% of CP on a dry matter (DM) basis). A linear increasing trend in the average daily gain (ADG) was observed (p = 0.066). With increased dietary CP levels, the rumen ammonia concentration significantly increased (p < 0.001), while the propionate proportion linearly decreased (p = 0.004) and the proportions of butyrate and valerate linearly increased (p ≤ 0.003). The blood urea exhibited a linear increase (p < 0.001), whereas the blood non-esterified fatty acids and cholesterol showed a linear decrease (p ≤ 0.003) with increasing dietary CP. The methane concentration from eructation per intake (ppm/kg), forage neutral detergent fiber (NDF) intake, total NDF intake, and ADG exhibited linear decreases (p ≤ 0.014) across the treatments. In conclusion, increasing the dietary CP up to 21% in concentrates demonstrated a tendency to linearly increase the ADG and significantly decrease the propionate while increasing the butyrate. The methane concentration from eructation exhibited a tendency to linearly decrease with increasing dietary CP.

Microbial Fermented Liquid Supplementation Improves Nutrient Digestibility, Feed Intake, and Milk Production in Lactating Dairy Cows Fed Total Mixed Ration

The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of MFL supplementation on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, milk yield, and milk composition in early lactating dairy cows. Twelve, Thai crossbred Holstein Friesian cows in early lactation, 500 ± 30 kg of body weight (BW), were randomly assigned according to a completely randomized design (CRD). MFL supplementation levels of 0, 100, 200, and 300 mL/d were used as treatments. Experimental animals were fed a total mixed ration (TMR) with a roughage to concentrate ratio (R:C ratio) of 40:60, which contains 12% crude protein (CP) and 70% total digestible nutrient (TDN). Rice straw was a roughage source. MFL supplementation levels had no effect (p > 0.05) on body weight change and dry matter intake (DMI) expressed as %BW, whereas DMI expressed as metabolic body weight (BW^0.75) was linearly (p < 0.05) increased, with the highest at 200 mL/d in the YFL supplementation group (147.5 g/kg BW^0.75), whereas feed intake of organic matter (OM), CP, ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) did not significant (p > 0.05) difference among treatments. Related to apparent digestibility, MFL levels did not affect (p > 0.05) on DM, OM, and EE digestibility, while apparent digestibility of CP, NDF, and ADF were linearly increased (p < 0.05) when increasing MFL supplementation levels, and the highest (p < 0.05) were the 200 and 300 mL/d FML supplemented groups. BUN at 0 h post feeding did not show a significant difference (p > 0.05) between treatments, while at 4 h after feeding, BUN was linearly (p < 0.05) increased from 0, 100, 200, and 300 (mL/day) MFL supplementation, the values were 12.9, 13.1, 19.7, and 18.4 mg/dL, respectively and the highest was 200 mL/head/day for the MFL supplemented group. MFL supplementation did not affect (p > 0.05) milk fat, lactose, solid not fat (SNF), and specific gravity of milk, while MFL supplementation at 200 mL/day caused a linear increase (p < 0.01) in BUN, MUN, milk yield, milk protein, total solids (TS) and 3.5% FCM when supplement levels were increased. In conclusion, MFL supplementation in early lactating dairy cows could improve feed intake, nutrient digestibility, milk yield, and milk composition.

Phytonutrient pellet supplementation enhanced rumen fermentation efficiency and milk production of lactating Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows

The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of inclusion of dragon fruit peel pellet (DFPP) and dietary non-protein nitrogen (NPN) on nutrients digestibility, rumen fermentation efficiency, plasma antioxidant activity, microbial protein synthesis, milk yield and composition in lactating Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows. Four animals were randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments according to a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement in 4 × 4 Latin square design. The treatments were as follows: 300 g DM of DFPP +100 g of urea (T1), 300 g DM of DFPP + 200 g of urea (T2), 400 g DM of DFPP + 100 g of urea (T3), and 400 g DM of DFPP + 200 g of urea (T4), respectively. The results showed that intake of rice straw was increased (P < 0.01) by the DFPP addition. Including DFPP and urea did not affect (P > 0.05) the NDF and ADF digestibilities, but increased the apparent digestibilities of dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein (P < 0.01). Rumen fermentation process, especially the propionate concentration, was significantly increased by the DFPP levels. The plasma antioxidant activity was increased (P > 0.05) with the addition of DFPP. The DFPP improved (P < 0.01) microbial protein synthesis. The supplementation of DFPP and urea increased (P < 0.05) milk fat, whereas milk yield and 3.5% fat corrected milk were only increased (P < 0.05) by the DFPP supplementation. Based on these results, addition of DFPP at 400 g/animal per day with urea at 100 g/animal per day improved rumen fermentation, plasma antioxidant activity, milk yield and milk fat percentage.

Mangosteen Peel Liquid-Protected Soybean Meal Can Shift Rumen Microbiome and Rumen Fermentation End-Products in Lactating Crossbred Holstein Friesian Cows

Rumen bypass protein can enhance protein availability in the lower gut. This study investigated the use of liquid-containing phytonutrients in dairy cows as a dietary additives to reduce rumen protein degradation. Four crossbred lactating Holstein Friesian cows (75% Holstein Friesian with 25% Thai native breed) with an initial body weight (BW) of 410 ± 20 kg were randomly assigned to a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement [two crude protein (CP) levels with soybean meal (SBM) or mangosteen peel liquid-protected soybean meal (MPLP)-SBM] in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment. Dietary treatments were as follows: T1 = SBM in low crude protein concentrate (LPC) (SBM-LPC); T2 = MPLP-SBM in LPC (MPLP-SBM-LPC); T3 = SBM in high crude protein concentrate (HPC) (SBM-HPC); T4 = MPLP-SBM in HPC (MPLP-SBM-HPC). Apparent digestibilities of organic matter (OM) and neutral detergent fiber (aNDF) were increased (p < 0.05) by CP level in the HPC diet (19% CP), with higher OM and aNDF digestibilities. High crude protein concentrate increased (p < 0.05) the propionic acid in the rumen but reduced (p < 0.05) the acetic acid-to-propionic acid ratio and methane (CH4) production. Rumen microbial populations of the total bacteria, Fibrobacter succinogenes and Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens were increased (p < 0.05) by HPC. Real-time PCR revealed a 30.6% reduction of rumen methanogens by the MPLP-SBM in HPC. Furthermore, efficiency of microbial nitrogen synthesis (EMNS) was 15.8% increased (p < 0.05) by the MPLP-SBM in HPC when compared to SBM-LPC. Milk yield and milk composition protein content were enhanced (p < 0.05) by both the CP level in concentrate and by MPLP inclusion. In this experiment, a high level of CP and the MPLP-SBM enhanced the ruminal propionate, shifted rumen microbiome, and enhanced milk yield and compositions.

Mitigating rumen methane and enhancing fermentation using rambutan fruit peel powder and urea in lactating dairy cows

The experiment was designed to study the use of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) fruit peel powder (RP) with urea (U) supplementation on rumen fermentation, digestibility, methane (CH₄ ) production, milk production and composition in lactating dairy cows. Four Holstein crossbred lactating dairy cows, with starting liveweight of 450 ± 15 kg with 130 ± 10 DIM (days-in-milk), were randomly allocated to respective treatments: without supplementation (control; T1), supplementation of urea (U) at 90 g/hd/day (T2), supplementation of RP at 450 g/hd/day (T3) and supplementation of RPU (RP at 450 g/hd/day and U 90 g/hd/day) (T4), respectively, using a 4 × 4 Latin square design. The results showed that the U, RP and RPU supplementation did not change feed intakes (p > 0.05) and digestibilities of DM and OM were similar. However, digestibilities of CP and NDF were increased in the U and RPU groups (p < 0.05). Acetate production was decreased, while propionate production was dramatically increased (p < 0.05) in both the RP and RPU groups respectively. Notably, the ratio of C₂ :C₃ , protozoal population and CH₄ production was reduced in both the RP and RPU groups. In addition, nitrogen intake and nitrogen excretion were significantly higher while nitrogen retention was increased in the U and RPU groups. Allantoin excretion and absorption, microbial protein synthesis and efficiency of microbial N supply were increased in the U and RPU supplementation groups (p < 0.05). Furthermore, milk yield, milk fat and total solids were significantly enhanced in the U and RPU groups (p < 0.05). Moreover, the 3.5% FCM was increased (p < 0.05) while milk protein, lactose, solids-not-fat and milk urea nitrogen were not altered (p > 0.05). Supplementation of either U or RPU significantly improved fibre digestibilities, rumen fermentation, microbial protein synthesis, reduced protozoal population, mitigated CH₄ production and enhanced milk yield and milk composition.

Influence of Supplementing Sesbania grandiflora Pod Meal at Two Dietary Crude Protein Levels on Feed Intake, Fermentation Characteristics, and Methane Mitigation in Thai Purebred Beef Cattle

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of crude protein (CP) levels in concentrate and Sesbania grandiflora pod meal (SG) supplementation on feed intake, rumen fermentation, and methane (CH₄) mitigation in Thai purebred beef cattle. Four cattle with 100 ± 5.0 kg body weight were used in this study. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment in a 4 × 4 Latin square design was conducted, in which factor A was the CP levels in concentrate of 14% and 16% of dry matter (DM) and factor B was the supplement levels of SG at 0.4% and 0.6% DM intake, respectively. The results showed that the CP content in concentrate and SG supplementation had no interaction effect on intake, digestibility, ruminal ecologies, ruminal fermentation products, and nitrogen utilization. Increasing CP content to 16% significantly (p < 0.05) increased the ruminal ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N), nitrogen (N) intake, N absorption, and N retention. SG supplementation significantly (p < 0.05) decreased CP digestibility, NH₃-N, blood urea nitrogen, and protozoa. In addition, SG significantly decreased acetate (C2), acetate to propionate ratio, methane, and fecal N excretion, while it significantly increased total volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and propionate (C3) concentration. In conclusion, SG could mitigate methane emission and enhance nitrogen utilization.

Effects of Phytonutrients on Ruminal Fermentation, Digestibility, and Microorganisms in Swamp Buffaloes

Simple Summary

Fermentation in ruminants can influence greenhouse gas production, especially methane (CH₄) production. Phytonutrients (PTN) and secondary metabolites (tannins, saponins) have antimicrobial activity which can be used for the inhibition of rumen methanogens and the reduction of methane emissions in ruminants. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of PTN containing both mangosteen peel powder and banana flower powder on feed consumption, nutrient digestibility, and rumen microorganisms in swamp buffaloes. The results suggest that supplementation of PTN can improve fiber digestibility, increase the proteolytic and cellulolytic bacteria, and alter rumen volatile fatty acids (VFAs), especially increased C₃ and reduced methane production. This study shows that PTN containing either mangosteen peel powder (MSP) or banana flower powder (BFP) could be used as a rumen modifier.

Abstract

This experiment aimed to use dietary sources containing phytonutrients (PTN) such as mangosteen peel powder (MSP) and banana flower powder (BFP) as sources of phytonutrients. Four swamp buffalo bulls fitted with rumen fistulae were used as experimental animals. A digestion trial covering four periods was used according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design with four treatments: Treatment 1 (T1) = control (Cont), T2 = supplementation of PTN1 fed at 100 g/d, T3 = supplementation of PTN2 fed at 100 g/d, and T4 = supplementation of PTN3 fed at 100 g/d. The experiment was conducted for four periods; each period lasted for 21 days. All animals were fed a concentrate mixture at 0.5% body weight, while rice straw, water, and mineral blocks were fed ad libitum. The findings revealed significant increases in the digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF), while no changes in dry matter feed consumption occurred due to PTN supplementation. Rumen fermentation end-products, such as total volatile fatty acids (TVFA), propionic acid (C₃), and butyric acid (C₄), were notably enhanced (p < 0.05) and there were the highest in PTN2 and PTN3, whilst acetic acid (C₂) was significantly decreased with PTN supplementation groups. Furthermore, the rumen protozoal population was suppressed (p < 0.05), which resulted in decreased rumen methane production (p < 0.05), while the bacterial population was enhanced. Using PTN sources can improve rumen fermentation as well as mitigating rumen methane production.

Dietary rambutan peel powder as a rumen modifier in beef cattle

OBJECTIVE

The experiment was conducted to study the effect of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) fruit peel powder (RP) on feed consumption, digestibility of nutrients, ruminal fermentation dynamics and microbial population in Thai breed cattle.

METHODS

Four, 2-year old (250±15 kg) beef bull crossbreds (75% Brahman×25% local breed) were allotted to experimental treatments using a 4×4 Latin square design. Four dietary supplementation treatments were imposed; non-supplementation (control, T1); supplementation of RP fed at 2% of dry matter intake (DMI) (low, T2); supplementation of RP fed at 4% of DMI (medium, T3) and supplementation of RP fed at 6% of DMI (high, T4). All cattle were given a concentrate supplement at 1% of body weight while Napier grass was provided as a free choice.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that RP supplementation did not negatively affect (p>0.05) DMI of Napier grass, while RP intake and total DMI were the greatest in the RP supplementation at 4% and 6% DMI. Nevertheless, the nutrients (dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber) digestibilities were not changed in the RP supplementation groups. Rumen fermentation parameters especially those of total volatile fatty acids, acetate and butyrate were not significantly changed. However, the propionate concentration was remarkably increased (p<0.05) in the RP supplementation. Notably, the ratio of acetate to propionate, the number of protozoa, as well as the methane estimation were significantly reduced in the RP supplemented groups (4% and 6% of DMI), while the counts of bacteria was not altered.

CONCLUSION

Supplementation of RP (4% of DMI) improved rumen propionate production, reduced protozoal population and methane estimation (p<0.05) without a negative effect on feed consumption and nutrients total tract digestibilities in beef cattle. Using dietary rambutan fruit peel powder has potential promise as a rumen regulator.

Effects of Supplementation with Royal Poinciana Seed Meal (Delonix regia) on Ruminal Fermentation Pattern, Microbial Protein Synthesis, Blood Metabolites and Mitigation of Methane Emissions in Native Thai Beef Cattle

Simple Summary

Strategic feeding of ruminants with pellets containing phytochemical compounds is one approach that could enhance rumen fermentation and decrease greenhouse gases. It was found that feeding with the pellets containing royal poinciana seed meal at 150 g/d might be an alternative to improve rumen fermentation efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of ruminants.

Abstract

The object of this present work was to determine the effects of supplementation with pellets containing royal poinciana seed meal (PEREM) on feed use, ruminal fermentation efficiency, microbial protein synthesis, blood metabolites and mitigation of methane (CH₄) emissions in cattle. The animals used in this experiment were four male Thai native beef cattle (Bos indicus) with initial body weights (BWs) of 125 ± 5.0 kg. Each of the animals were randomly assigned to receive PEREM doses at 0, 50, 100 and 150 g/d, respectively, according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Concentrates were fed at 0.5% BW daily, and rice straw was fed ad libitum. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) on intakes of rice straw, concentrate and total diet. The intake of nutrients did not change among the levels of PEREM supplementation (p > 0.05), except for an intake of crude protein, which was linearly enhanced when increasing the dose of PEREM (p < 0.05). The inclusion of different doses of PEREM did not adversely affect the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber (p > 0.05). Adding various doses of PEREM did not alter ruminal pH and ruminal temperature, while concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen were significantly increased with an increased dose of PEREM supplementation (p < 0.01). The increasing doses of PEREM linearly reduced protozoal numbers (p < 0.01), with the lowest concentration when PEREM was added at 150 g. PEREM supplementation did not change (p > 0.05) the concentration of acetic acid or butyric acid or the ratio of acetic acid to propionic acid. Nevertheless, the total volatile fatty acid and propionic acid content were changed among PEREM levels (p < 0.05), which were linearly increased with an increasing dose of PEREM. At 4 h post feeding, the CH₄ concentrations in the rumen of the animal were linearly reduced when the dose of pellets was increased (p < 0.01). In addition, the inclusion of PEREM did not adversely affect other blood metabolites, namely total protein, creatinine and albumin (p > 0.05). Furthermore, microbial crude protein and efficiency of microbial N synthesis were linearly enhanced when increasing levels of PEREM were added. The feeding of PEREM at 150 g/d might be an alternative with the potential to improve rumen fermentation efficiency and reduce the environmental effects produced by ruminants.

In vitro evaluations of pellets containing Delonix regia seed meal for ruminants

The objective of the present research was to determine the influence of various doses of the pellets containing DR seed meal (PEDEM) on in vitro CH₄ gas production, in vitro digestibility, protozoal count, and ruminal fermentation characteristics. The study was designed as a completely randomized design with eight levels of PEDEM supplementation at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 mg DM. Gas production rate constants for the insoluble fraction (c) and cumulative gas production at 96 h were quadratically increased when PEDEM was supplemented (P < 0.05). The concentration of NH₃-N was linearly increased when the PEDEM concentration (P < 0.05) was increased, whereas the population of protozoa was linearly decreased when the level of PEDEM supplementation (P < 0.05) was increased. The supplementation of PEDEM in substrate quadratically affected the mean values of in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), and in vitro NDF digestibility (P < 0.05). TVFA, acetic acid (C2), and butyric acid (C4) were not altered by different doses of PEDEM supplementation (P > 0.05). In contrast, the concentration of propionic acid (C3) was quadratically affected with the supplementation of PEDEM (P = 0.05). The inclusion of PEDEM did not change the CH₄ concentration at 6 h of incubation (P > 0.05), whereas the CH₄ concentration at 24 h of incubation and the mean values were linearly reduced with additional doses of PEDEM (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the mean CH₄ concentration was reduced at 51.1% with 12 mg PEDEM, whereas 59.6% was reduced with 14 mg PEDEM supplementations. The supplementation of PEDEM at 12 mg has the potential to manipulate rumen fermentation, to manipulate in vitro digestibility and to reduce protozoa and CH₄ production.

Dietary dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) peel powder improved in vitro rumen fermentation and gas production kinetics

Plant phytophenols especially condensed tannins (CT) and saponins (SP) have been demonstrated to impact on rumen fermentation. Dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) peel powder (DFPP) contains both CT and SP. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of DFPP and varying levels of concentrate and roughage ratios on gas production kinetics, nutrient degradability, and methane production "using in vitro gas production technique." The dietary treatments were arranged according to a 3 × 5 Factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design. The two experimental factors consisted of the roughage to concentrate (R:C) ratio (100:0, 70:30, and 30:70) and the levels of DFPP supplementation (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% of the substrate) on DM basis. The results revealed that the R:C ratio at 30:70 had the highest cumulative gas production when compared to other ratios (P < 0.01). The in vitro true dry matter degradability at 12 and 24 h was affected by R:C ratio (P < 0.01). Furthermore, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and propionate (C3) were significantly increased by the levels of DFPP, while acetate (C2) and C2:C3 ratios were decreased (P < 0.05). The rumen protozoal population was significantly decreased by DFPP supplementation (P < 0.05). Rumen methane production was significantly impacted by R:C ratios and decreased when the level of DFPP increased (P < 0.01), while NH₃-N and ruminal pH were not influenced by the DFPP supplement. It could be summarized that supplementation of DFPP resulted in improved rumen fermentation kinetics and could be used as a dietary source to mitigate rumen methane production, hence reducing greenhouse gas production.

Effect of increased dietary crude protein levels on production performance, nitrogen utilisation, blood metabolites and ruminal fermentation of Holstein bulls

Objective

This study investigated the effect of dietary crude protein (CP) supplementation on nutrient intake, nitrogen (N) utilisation, blood metabolites, ruminal fermentation and growth performance of young Holstein bulls.

Methods

Twenty-one young bulls weighing 277±11.2 kg were equally divided into three groups and were offered diets formulated with low CP (LCP; 10.21% CP and 4.22% rumen degradable protein [RDP]), medium CP (MCP; 12.35% CP and 5.17% RDP) and high CP (HCP; 14.24% CP and 6.03% RDP). Yellow corn silage was used as a unique forage source and was mixed with concentrate. This mixed feed was given ad libitum to the young bulls included in the study.

Results

Results showed that CP intake, blood urea nitrogen, N intake, total N excretion and N balance increased linearly with an increase in dietary CP level (p<0.05). However, no significant difference was observed in nutrient digestibility among the bulls receiving the different diets. Ruminal pH (p<0.05) and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N) concentration (p<0.01) were significantly higher in the bulls receiving the MCP and HCP diets than in those receiving the LCP diet. The bulls receiving the HCP diet showed significantly higher ruminal bacterial protein level, propionate, acetate and total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentrations than bulls receiving the LCP diet (p<0.05). Moreover, dietary CP level exerted a significant positive effect on the final body weight, average daily gain and gain-to-feed ratio of the bulls (p<0.05).

Conclusion

High dietary CP level is optimal for achieving maximum growth and high profitability without exerting a negative effect on the physiology of growing Holstein bulls.

Improving ruminal fermentation and nutrient digestibility in dairy steers by banana flower powder-pellet supplementation

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of banana flower powder pellet (BAFLOP pellet) on nutrient digestibility, rumen ecology and microorganism population. Four rumen-fistulated dairy steers of 200 ± 20 kg bodyweight were randomly assigned to receive four dietary treatments according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. The treatments were as follows: control (T1), NaHCO3 supplementation at 20 g/kg of total dry-matter feed intake (DMI; T2), BAFLOP-pellet supplementation at 20 g/kg of DMI (T3) and BAFLOP-pellet supplementation at 40 g/kg of DMI (T4). All cattle were fed roughage–concentrate mix (30 : 70 ratio) at 25 g/kg bodyweight. Standard management protocols were employed during the experimental periods. The results showed that nutrient digestibility was increased in steers supplemented with NaHCO3 and BAFLOP pellets at 40 g/kg DMI (P < 0.05). Although ruminal temperature and blood urea nitrogen were not influenced by dietary supplementation, ruminal pH was increased (P < 0.05) in steers supplemented with NaHCO3 and BAFLOP pellets at 40 g/kg DMI. In addition, NaHCO3 supplementation increased bacterial and protozoal populations, whereas populations of fungal zoospores were similar among treatments. Supplementation with BAFLOP pellets at 40 g/kg DMI increased the bacterial count, whereas protozoal numbers were similar to those in the control group (P < 0.05). On the basis of the present findings, BAFLOP-pellet supplementation improved nutrient digestibility, ruminal pH and microbial population, without having any adverse effects on voluntary feed intake. The present study showed promising results for BAFLOP pellets (40 g/kg DMI) as a rumen dietary buffering agent, suggesting that these pellets could be used a replacement for sodium bicarbonate in ruminants fed high-concentrate diets.

Potential of tannin-rich plants for modulating ruminal microbes and ruminal fermentation in sheep

The objective of this work was to study nutritional strategies for decreasing methane production by ruminants fed tropical diets, combining in vitro and in vivo methods. The in vitro approach was used to evaluate the dose effect of condensed tannins (CT) contained in leaves of Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, and Manihot esculenta (39, 75, and 92 g CT/kg DM, respectively) on methane production and ruminal fermentation characteristics. Tannin-rich plants (TRP) were incubated for 24 h alone or mixed with a natural grassland hay based on Dichanthium spp. (control plant), so that proportions of TRP were 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0. Methane production, VFA concentration, and fermented OM decreased with increased proportions of TRP. Numerical differences on methane production and VFA concentration among TRP sources may be due to differences in their CT content, with greater effects for L. leucocephala and M. esculenta than for G. sepium. Independently of TRP, the response to increasing doses of CT was linear for methane production but quadratic for VFA concentration. As a result, at moderate tannin dose, methane decreased more than VFA. The in vivo trial was conducted to investigate the effect of TRP on different ruminal microbial populations. To this end, 8 rumen-cannulated sheep from 2 breeds (Texel and Blackbelly) were used in two 4 × 4 Latin square designs. Diets were fed ad libitum and were composed of the same feeds used for the in vitro trial: control plant alone or combined with pellets made from TRP leaves at 44% of the diet DM. Compared to TRP, concentration of Ruminococcus flavefaciens was greater for the control diet and concentration of Ruminococcus albus was least for the control diet. The methanogen population was greater for Texel than for Blackbelly. By contrast, TRP-containing diets did not affect protozoa or Fibrobacter succinogenes numbers. Hence, TRP showed potential for mitigating methane production by ruminants. These findings suggest that TRP fed as pellets could be used to decrease methane production.

Effect of Dietary Protein Levels on Composition of Odorous Compounds and Bacterial Ecology in Pig Manure

This study was performed to investigate the effect of different levels of dietary crude protein (CP) on composition of odorous compounds and bacterial communities in pig manure. A total of 48 male pigs (average initial body weight 45 kg) fed diets containing three levels of dietary CP (20%, 17.5%, and 15%) and their slurry samples were collected from the pits under the floor every week for one month. Changes in composition of odorous compounds and bacterial communities were analyzed by gas chromatography and 454 FLX titanium pyrosequencing systems, respectively. Levels of phenols, indoles, short chain fatty acid and branched chain fatty acid were lowest (p<0.05) in CP 15% group among three CP levels. Relative abundance of Bacteroidetes phylum and bacterial genera including Leuconostoc, Bacillus, Atopostipes, Peptonphilus, Ruminococcaceae_uc, Bacteroides, and Pseudomonas was lower (p<0.05) in CP 15% than in CP 20% group. There was a positive correlation (p<0.05) between odorous compounds and bacterial genera: phenol, indole, iso-butyric acid, and iso-valeric acid with Atopostipes, p-cresol and skatole with Bacteroides, acetic acid and butyric acid with AM982595_g of Porphyromonadaceae family, and propionic acid with Tissierella. Taken together, administration of 15% CP showed less production of odorous compounds than 20% CP group and this result might be associated with the changes in bacterial communities especially whose roles in protein metabolism.

Dietary sources and their effects on animal production and environmental sustainability

Animal agriculture has been an important component in the integrated farming systems in developing countries. It serves in a paramount diversified role in producing animal protein food, draft power, farm manure as well as ensuring social status-quo and enriching livelihood. Ruminants are importantly contributable to the well-being and the livelihood of the global population. Ruminant production systems can vary from subsistence to intensive type of farming depending on locality, resource availability, infrastructure accessibility, food demand and market potentials. The growing demand for sustainable animal production is compelling to researchers exploring the potential approaches to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions from livestock. Global warming has been an issue of concern and importance for all especially those engaged in animal agriculture. Methane (CH₄) is one of the major GHG accounted for at least 14% of the total GHG with a global warming potential 25-fold of carbon dioxide and a 12-year atmospheric lifetime. Agricultural sector has a contribution of 50 to 60% methane emission and ruminants are the major source of methane contribution (15 to 33%). Methane emission by enteric fermentation of ruminants represents a loss of energy intake (5 to 15% of total) and is produced by methanogens (archae) as a result of fermentation end-products. Ruminants׳ digestive fermentation results in fermentation end-products of volatile fatty acids (VFA), microbial protein and methane production in the rumen. Rumen microorganisms including bacteria, protozoa and fungal zoospores are closely associated with the rumen fermentation efficiency. Besides using feed formulation and feeding management, local feed resources have been used as alternative feed additives for manipulation of rumen ecology with promising results for replacement in ruminant feeding. Those potential feed additive practices are as follows: 1) the use of plant extracts or plants containing secondary compounds (e.g., condensed tannins and saponins) such as mangosteen peel powder, rain tree pod; 2) plants rich in minerals, e.g., banana flower powder; and 3) plant essential oils, e.g., garlic, eucalyptus leaf powder, etc. Implementation of the -feed-system using cash crop and leguminous shrubs or fodder trees are of promising results.

Effect of different levels of mangosteen peel powder supplement on the performance of dairy cows fed concentrate containing yeast fermented cassava chip protein

This study aimed to investigate the effect of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) peel powder (MSP) supplementation on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, and milk production in lactating dairy cows fed a concentrate containing yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP). Four crossbred dairy cows (50 % Holstein-Friesian and 50 % Thai native breed) in mid-lactation, 404 ± 50.0 kg of body weight and 90 ± 5 day in milk with daily milk production of 9 ± 2.0 kg/day, were randomly assigned according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design to receive 4 dietary treatments. The treatments were different levels of MSP supplementation at 0, 100, 200, and 300 g/head/day. Rice straw was used as a roughage source and fed ad libitum to all cows, and concentrate containing YEFECAP at 200 g/kg concentrate was offered corresponding to concentrate to milk yield ratio at 1:2. Results revealed that feed intake, apparent nutrient digestibility, ruminal pH and temperature, and total volatile fatty acid were not significantly affected by MSP supplementation (P > 0.05). However, increasing levels of MSP supplementation increased molar proportion of propionate while ammonia-nitrogen, acetate, and acetate to propionate ratio were decreased (P < 0.01). Moreover, milk production and economic return were increased linearly (P < 0.01) with the increasing level of MSP supplementation. The present findings suggested that supplementation of MSP especially at 300 g/head/day with concentrate containing YEFECAP at 200 g/kg could improve rumen fermentation efficiency, milk production and protein content, and economical return of lactating dairy cows fed on rice straw.

Effect of cattle breeds on milk composition and technological characteristics in china

Cattle breeds have a striking effect on milk, including milk composition and technological characteristics. This study aims to compare milk composition, acidification activity, viscosity, milk dispersion system stability and casein molecular weight among three buffalo breeds in China. The technological characteristics of milk produced by three cattle breeds of river buffalo (Murrah), crossbreed 1st generation (F1), crossbreed multiple generation (FH, H≥3) buffaloes were investigated. Cattle breeds showed evident effect on milk protein, fat and total solids content, but little effect on most of buffalo casein molecular weight. Milk fat, protein content and the viscosity of buffalo milk from river buffalo were lower than those of F1 and FH, so was the buffer capacity. The viscosity was negatively correlated to temperature and concentration. Results of stability coefficient showed that milk dispersion system had the best dynamic stability characteristics under pH 6.6 and 6 times dilution, while zeta potential of Murrah milk was slightly higher than that of hybrid offspring (F1, FH). SDS-PAGE results showed that buffalo αs-casein had a slightly faster mobility than standard αs-casein; while buffalo β-casein showed a slightly slower mobility than standard β-casein. There is no clear differences in molecular weight of αs-, β-, and κ-casein among Murrah, F1 and FH.

Changes of microbial population in the rumen of dairy steers as influenced by plant containing tannins and saponins and roughage to concentrate ratio

The objective of this study was to investigate microbial population in the rumen of dairy steers as influenced by supplementing with dietary condensed tannins and saponins and different roughage to concentrate ratios. Four, rumen fistulated dairy steers (Bos indicus) were used in a 2×2 factorial arrangement in a 4×4 Latin square design. The main factors were two roughage to concentrate ratios (R:C, 60:40 and 40:60) and two supplementations of rain tree pod meal (RPM) (0 and 60 g/kg of total DM intake). Chopped 30 g/kg urea treated rice straw was used as a roughage source. All animals received feed according to respective R:C ratios at 25 g/kg body weight. The RPM contained crude tannins and saponins at 84 and 143 g/kg of DM, respectively. It was found that ruminal pH decreased while ruminal temperature increased by a higher concentrate ratio (R:C 40:60) (p<0.05). In contrast, total bacterial, Ruminococus albus and viable proteolytic bacteria were not affected by dietary supplementation. Numbers of fungi, cellulolytic bacteria, Fibrobactor succinogenes and Ruminococus flavefaciens were higher while amylolytic bacteria was lower when steers were fed at 400 g/kg of concentrate. The population of Fibrobactor succinogenes, was found to be higher with RPM supplementation. In addition, the use of real-time PCR technique indicated that the population of protozoa and methanogens were decreased (p<0.05) with supplementation of RPM and with an increasing concentrate ratio. Supplementation of RPM and feeding different concentrate ratios resulted in changing the rumen microbes especially, when the animals were fed at 600 g/kg of concentrate and supplemented with RPM which significantly reduced the protozoa and methanogens population.

Effect of Crude Protein Levels in Concentrate and Concentrate Levels in Diet on In vitro Fermentation

The effect of concentrate mixtures with crude protein (CP) levels 10%, 13%, 16%, and 19% and diets with roughage to concentrate ratios 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, and 20:80 (w/w) were determined on dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) digestibility, and fermentation metabolites using an in vitro fermentation technique. In vitro fermented attributes were measured after 4, 24, and 48 h of incubation respectively. The digestibility of DM and OM, and total volatile fatty acid (VFA) increased whereas pH decreased with the increased amount of concentrate in the diet (p<0.001), however CP levels of concentrate did not have any influence on these attributes. Gas production reduced with increased CP levels, while it increased with increasing concentrate levels. Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) concentration and microbial CP production increased significantly (p<0.05) by increasing CP levels and with increasing concentrate levels in diet as well, however, no significant difference was found between 16% and 19% CP levels. Therefore, 16% CP in concentrate and increasing proportion of concentrate up to 80% in diet all had improved digestibility of DM and organic matter, and higher microbial protein production, with improved fermentation characteristics.

Effect of tannins and saponins in Samanea saman on rumen environment, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of tannins and saponins in Samanea saman on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows. Four multiparous early-lactating dairy cows (Holstein-Friesian cross-bred, 75%) with an initial body weight (BW) of 405 ± 40 kg and 36 ± 8 day in milk were randomly assigned to receive dietary treatments according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. The four dietary treatments were unsupplemented (control), supplemented with rain tree pod (S. saman) meal (RPM) at 60 g/kg, supplemented with palm oil (PO) at 20 g/kg, and supplemented with RPM at 60 g/kg and PO at 20 g/kg (RPO), of total dry matter (DM) intake. Cows were fed with concentrate diets at a ratio of concentrate to milk yield of 1:2, and chopped 30 g/kg of urea-treated rice straw was fed ad libitum. The RPM contained condensed tannins and crude saponins at 88 and 141 g/kg of DM respectively. It was found that supplementation with RPM and/or PO to dairy cows diets did not show negative effect on ruminal pH, blood urea nitrogen and milk urea nitrogen concentration (p > 0.05). However, supplementation with RPM resulted in lower ammonia nitrogen (NH3 -N) concentration (p < 0.05). In addition, propionic acid and milk production increased while acetic acid, acetic to propionic ratio, methane production, methanogens and protozoal population decreased with RPM and/or PO supplementation. Furthermore, addition of PO and RPO in the diets increased milk fat while supplementation of RPM resulted in greater milk protein and Fibrobacter succinogenes numbers (p < 0.05). The population of Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Ruminococcus albus were not affected by any treatments. The findings on the present study showed that supplementation with RPM and RPO to diets of cows improved the rumen environment and increased milk yield, content of milk protein and milk fat.

Development of feeding systems and strategies of supplementation to enhance rumen fermentation and ruminant production in the tropics

The availability of local feed resources in various seasons can contribute as essential sources of carbohydrate and protein which significantly impact rumen fermentation and the subsequent productivity of the ruminant. Recent developments, based on enriching protein in cassava chips, have yielded yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) providing up to 47.5% crude protein (CP), which can be used to replace soybean meal. The use of fodder trees has been developed through the process of pelleting; Leucaena leucocephala leaf pellets (LLP), mulberry leaf pellets (MUP) and mangosteen peel and/or garlic pellets, can be used as good sources of protein to supplement ruminant feeding. Apart from producing volatile fatty acids and microbial proteins, greenhouse gases such as methane are also produced in the rumen. Several methods have been used to reduce rumen methane. However, among many approaches, nutritional manipulation using feed formulation and feeding management, especially the use of plant extracts or plants containing secondary compounds (condensed tannins and saponins) and plant oils, has been reported. This approach could help todecrease rumen protozoa and methanogens and thus mitigate the production of methane. At present, more research concerning this burning issue - the role of livestock in global warming - warrants undertaking further research with regard to economic viability and practical feasibility.

Practice on improving fattening local cattle production in Vietnam by increasing crude protein level in concentrate and concentrate level

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of crude protein (CP) level in concentrate (experiment 1) and concentrate level (experiment 2) on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen (N) retention, ruminal pH and NH3-N concentration and average daily gain (ADG) of Vietnamese local fattening cattle. Animals (24 cattle, initial live weight (LW) 150.3 ± 11.8 kg in experiment 1 and 145.1 ± 9.8 kg in experiment 2) were allotted based on LW to one of four treatments in a randomised complete block design. In experiment 1, concentrate with four levels of CP (10, 13, 16 and 19 %) was fed at 1.5 % of LW. In experiment 2, concentrate was fed at 1.0, 1.4, 1.8 and 2.2 % of LW. In both experiments, roughage was 5 kg/day native grass and ad libitum rice straw (fresh basis). Results showed that the CP level in concentrate significantly affected dry matter (DM) intake (P < 0.05), N retention, ADG and ruminal NH3-N concentration (P < 0.01), but it had no significant effect on DM, organic matter (OM) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) digestibility (P > 0.05), whereas CP digestibility increased (P < 0.001) along with the CP level. DM intake, N retention and ADG increased (P < 0.001) linearly with concentrate intake. DM and CP digestibility were not significantly affected by concentrate intake (P > 0.05). OM digestibility and NH3-N concentration increased linearly (P < 0.05), whereas NDF digestibility and ruminal pH declined linearly with increased concentrate consumption (P < 0.01). These results indicate that 16 % CP in concentrate and feeding concentrate at the rate of 2.2 % of LW are recommendable for fattening local cattle in Vietnam.