The role of the microenvironment in tumor immune surveillance

Permafrost viremia and immune tweening

The immune system, an exquisitely regulated physiological system, utilizes a wide spectrum of soluble factors and multiple cell populations and subpopulations at diverse states of maturation to monitor and protect the organism against foreign organisms. Immune surveillance is ensured by distinguishing self-antigens from self-associated with non-self (e.g., viral) peptides presented by major histocompatibility complexes (MHC). Pathology is often identified as unregulated inflammatory responses (e.g., cytokine storm), or recognizing self as a non-self entity (i.e., auto-immunity). Artificial intelligence (AI), and in particular specific machine learning (ML) paradigms (e.g., Deep Learning [DL]) proffer powerful algorithms to better understand and more accurately predict immune responses, immune regulation and homeostasis, and immune reactivity to challenges (i.e., immune allostasis) by their intrinsic ability to interpret immune parameters, pathways and events by analyzing large amounts of complex data and drawing predictive inferences (i.e., immune tweening). We propose here that DL models play an increasingly significant role in better defining and characterizing immunological surveillance to ancient and novel virus species released by thawing permafrost.

Biomineralized MnO2 Nanoplatforms Mediated Delivery of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors with STING Pathway Activation to Potentiate Cancer Radio-Immunotherapy

Radiotherapy (RT), as one of the main methods in the clinical treatment of various malignant tumors, would induce systemic immunotherapeutic effects by triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) of cancer cells. However, the antitumor immune responses produced by RT-induced ICD alone usually are not robust enough to eliminate distant tumors and thus ineffective against cancer metastases. Herein, a biomimetic mineralization method for facile synthesis of MnO₂ nanoparticles with high anti-programmed death ligand 1 (αPDL1) encapsulation efficiency (αPDL1@MnO₂) is proposed to reinforce RT-induced systemic antitumor immune responses. This therapeutic nanoplatforms-mediated RT can significantly improve the killing of tumor cells and effectively evoke ICD by overcoming hypoxia-induced radio-resistance and reprogramming the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, the released Mn²⁺ ions from αPDL1@MnO₂ under acidic tumor pH can activate the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway and facilitate the dendritic cells (DCs) maturation. Meanwhile, αPDL1 released from αPDL1@MnO₂ nanoparticles would further promote the intratumoral infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and trigger systemic antitumor responses, resulting in a strong abscopal effect to effectively inhibit tumor metastases. Overall, the biomineralized MnO₂-based nanoplatforms offer a simple strategy for TME modulation and immune activation, which are promising for enhanced RT immunotherapy.

Bioinformation Informs the Allostasiome: Translational Environmental Restoration (TER) for the Climate Crisis Medical Emergency

Health care is optimized when the best evidence base (BEB) is translated into policies whose effectiveness can be verified. Bioinformation disseminates BEB and is critical to translational health care. The survival of all prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including mammals, and ultimately our species, depends upon their ability to adapt to changes in their micro-environmental milieu and to the challenges of their surrounding macro-environment. Disturbances in the organism's macro-environment, such as the stressful stimuli derived from environmental changes akin to the current climate crisis, alter its physiological, cytological, biological, epigenetic and molecular microenvironment, and trigger concerted allostatic responses to regain homeostasis. Individual patient data analysis advocates the allostasiome as the specific pattern of biological events and pathways each individual organism undergoes to regain a balanced state of homeostasis following macro-environmental insults. Translational Environmental Restoration (TER) is the translation of BEB in climate change research into effective and efficacious policies for restorative renewal of our macro-environment. Patient-centered translational health care in the current climate crisis depends upon defining and characterizing the allostasiome as a complex systemic process intertwined with TER. Bioinformation is timely and critical to climate crisis research in general and to TER specifically, because it informs and disseminates the best available evidence for each subject's allostasiome. Concerted research must define and characterize BEB of the multi-dimensional medical emergency produced by the current climate crisis. Novel lines of investigation, including allostasione research, increasingly depend on bioinformation for dissemination, and are foundational for TER, one plausible solution to this complex health care crisis.

Effect of the autonomic nervous system on cancer progression depends on the type of tumor: solid are more affected then ascitic tumors

OBJECTIVES

A number of recently published studies have shown that the sympathetic nervous system may influence cancer progression. There are, however, some ambiguities about the role of the parasympathetic nerves in the modulation of growth of different tumor types. Moreover, tumor models used for investigation of the autonomic neurotransmission role in the processes related to the cancer growth and progression are mainly of the solid nature. The knowledge about the nervous system involvement in the modulation of the development and progression of malignant ascites is only fragmental. Therefore, the aim of the present article was to summarize the results of our experimental studies focused on the elucidation of the role of the autonomic nervous system in the modulation of tumor growth in animals. We are summarizing data from studies, in which not only different experimental approaches in order to influence the autonomic neurotransmission, but also different tumor models have been used.

METHODS

Three different types of tumor models, namely solid rat intra-abdominal fibrosarcoma, solid murine subcutaneous melanoma, and rat ascites hepatoma, and three types of interventions have been used in order to modulate the autonomic neurotransmission, specifically chemical sympathectomy, subdiaphragmatic vagotomy, or the electric stimulation of the vagus nerve.

RESULTS

We have proved a strong stimulatory effect of the sympathetic nerves on the development and growth in both solid tumors, rat fibrosarcoma as well as murine melanoma, and significant inhibitory impact on the survival time of tumor-bearing animals. The progression of ascites hepatoma in rats was not influenced by chemical sympathectomy. Modulation of parasympathetic signalization by vagotomy or vagal nerve stimulation does not affect fibrosarcoma and ascites hepatoma growth and survival of the tumor-bearing rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the obtained data, it seems that the solid types of tumors are suitable substrate for the direct action of neurotransmitters released especially from the sympathetic nerves. In contrast, it appears that the malignant ascites are not under the direct autonomic nerves control; however, an indirect action via the immune functions modulation cannot be excluded.

Synergistic Effect and Molecular Mechanisms of Traditional Chinese Medicine on Regulating Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Cells

The interaction of tumor cells with the microenvironment is like a relationship between the “seeds” and “soil,” which is a hotspot in recent cancer research. Targeting at tumor microenvironment as well as tumor cells has become a new strategy for cancer treatment. Conventional cancer treatments mostly focused on single targets or single mechanism (the seeds or part of the soil); few researches intervened in the whole tumor microenvironment and achieved ideal therapeutic effect as expected. Traditional Chinese medicine displays a broad range of biological effects, and increasing evidence has shown that it may relate with synergistic effect on regulating tumor microenvironment and cancer cells. Based on literature review and our previous studies, we summarize the synergistic effect and the molecular mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine on regulating tumor microenvironment and cancer cells.

Viral immune surveillance: Toward a TH17/TH9 gate to the central nervous system

Viral cellular immune surveillance is a dynamic and fluid system that is driven by finely regulated cellular processes including cytokines and other factors locally in the microenvironment and systemically throughout the body. It is questionable as to what extent the central nervous system (CNS) is an immune-privileged organ protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Recent evidence suggests converging pathways through which viral infection, and its associated immune surveillance processes, may alter the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, and lead to inflammation, swelling of the brain parenchyma and associated neurological syndromes. Here, we expand upon the recent "gateway theory", by which viral infection and other immune activation states may disrupt the specialized tight junctions of the BBB endothelium making it permeable to immune cells and factors. The model we outline here builds upon the proposition that this process may actually be initiated by cytokines of the IL-17 family, and recognizing the intimate balance between TH17 and TH9 cytokine profiles systemically. We argue that immune surveillance events, in response to viruses such as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), cause a TH17/TH9 induced gateway through blood brain barrier, and thus lead to characteristic neuroimmune pathology. It is possible and even probable that the novel TH17/TH9 induced gateway, which we describe here, opens as a consequence of any state of immune activation and sustained chronic inflammation, whether associated with viral infection or any other cause of peripheral or central neuroinflammation. This view could lead to new, timely and critical patient-centered therapies for patients with neuroimmune pathologies across a variety of etiologies.

ABBREVIATIONS

BBB - blood brain barrier, BDV - Borna disease virus, CARD - caspase activation and recruitment domains, CD - clusters of differentiation, CNS - central nervous system, DAMP - damage-associated molecular patterns, DENV - Dengue virus, EBOV - Ebola virus, ESCRT - endosomal sorting complex required for transport-I, HepC - Hepatitis C virus, HIV - human immunodeficiency virus, IFN - interferon, ILn - interleukin-n, IRF-n - interferon regulatory factor-n, MAVS - mitochondrial antiviral-signaling, MBGV - Marburg virus, M-CSF - macrophage colony-stimulating factor, MCP-1 - monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (aka CCL2), MHC - major histocompatibility complex, MIP-α β - macrophage inflammatory protein-1 α β (aka CCL3 & CCL4), MIF - macrophage migration inhibitory factor, NVE - Nipah virus encephalitis, NK - natural killer cell, NLR - NLR, NOD - like receptor, NOD - nucleotide oligomerization domain, PAMP - pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PtdIns - phosphoinositides, PV - Poliovirus, RIG-I - retinoic acid-inducible gene I, RIP - Receptor-interacting protein (RIP) kinase, RLR - RIG-I-like receptor, sICAM1 - soluble intracellular adhesion molecule 1, STAT-3 - signal tranducer and activator of transcription-3, sVCAM1 - soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, TANK - TRAF family member-associated NF- . B activator, TBK1 - TANK-binding kinase 1, TLR - Toll-like receptor, TNF - tumor necrosis factor, TNFR - TNF receptor, TNFRSF21 - tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 21, TRADD TNFR-SF1A - associated via death domain, TRAF TNFR - associated factor, Tregs - regulatory T cellsubpopulation (CD4/8+CD25+FoxP3+), VHF - viral hemorrhagic fever.

Loss of Dab2 expression in breast cancer cells impairs their ability to deplete TGF-β and induce Tregs development via TGF-β

Dab2 is a multifunctional adapter protein which is frequently under-expressed in a variety of cancers. It is implicated in many critical functions, including several signaling pathways, cell arrangement, differentiation of stem cells, and receptor endocytosis. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a secreted multifunctional protein that controls several developmental processes and pathogenesis of many diseases. It has been documented that Dab2 played an important role in TGF-β receptors endocytosis. Here, we present evidence that re-expression of Dab2 in SK-BR-3 cell partially restored its ability to deplete TGF-β in surrounding medium by normalizing the trafficking of TGF-β receptors. We also demonstrate that the difference in TGF-β depletions produced by Dab2 expression was sufficient to impact on the conversion of naive CD4+ T cells to regulatory T cells (Tregs), and thus inhibited the proliferation of T cells. This work revealed a critical result that breast cancer cell was deficient in Dab2 expression and related receptor endocytosis-mediated TGF-β depletion, which may contribute to the accumulation of TGF-β in tumor microenvironment and the induction of immune tolerance.

Immunotherapy strategies in the treatment of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Advances have been made in the field of cancer immunotherapy in understanding the role of the host immune response in affecting tumor progression and response to various treatments. Through these advances, two novel immunotherapies were introduced in the clinic for melanoma and prostate cancer.

METHODS

This review discusses the available data regarding the immune-modulating effects of various treatments and how they can be utilized in the treatment of breast cancer. Databases including PubMed and Google Scholar were searched using terms including breast cancer, vaccines, and immunotherapy.

RESULTS

There is increasing evidence to support that certain breast tumors are intrinsically more immunogenic than others. Tumors that elicit more potent cytotoxic T-cell responses tend to have a more favorable prognosis and respond better to chemotherapy than less immunogenic tumors. Many standard treatments used in breast cancer rely in part on their immunogenic effects for their success in eradicating disease. Understanding how to use these agents to effectively augment the antitumor immune response may lead to better outcomes. Finally, many new immunomodulatory agents and vaccines that can reverse the immunosuppression caused by established tumors are in development. Combining these novel agents with current therapies may boost their efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Immunotherapeutic approaches combined with novel sequences of chemotherapies, radiation, vaccines, and immunomodulating agents hold promise for enhancing the treatment of breast cancer.

The immunological contribution of NF-κB within the tumor microenvironment: a potential protective role of zinc as an anti-tumor agent

Over decades, cancer treatment has been mainly focused on targeting cancer cells and not much attention to host tumor microenvironment. Recent advances suggest that the tumor microenvironment requires in-depth investigation for understanding the interactions between tumor cell biology and immunobiology in order to optimize therapeutic approaches. Tumor microenvironment consists of cancer cells and tumor associated reactive fibroblasts, infiltrating non-cancer cells, secreted soluble factors or molecules, and non-cellular support materials. Tumor associated host immune cells such as Th(1), Th(2), Th17, regulatory cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells are major components of the tumor microenvironment. Accumulating evidence suggests that these tumor associated immune cells may play important roles in cancer development and progression. However, the exact functions of these cells in the tumor microenvironment are poorly understood. In the tumor microenvironment, NF-κB plays an important role in cancer development and progression because this is a major transcription factor which regulates immune functions within the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we will focus our discussion on the immunological contribution of NF-κB in tumor associated host immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. We will also discuss the potential protective role of zinc, a well-known immune response mediator, in the regulation of these immune cells and cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment especially because zinc could be useful for conditioning the tumor microenvironment toward innovative cancer therapy.

Immune surveillance of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NpC)

In the U.S., nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NpC) kills >7,600 each year. Deaths are predominantly among adult men, and in most cases, early detection and treatment can save lives. Despite the annual spending of approximately 3.2 billion dollars on head and neck cancer research, NpC remains a neglected disease since its fatality rates are among the lowest nation wide. The relative survival rates from NpC have not improved in the U.S. in the last 20 years. Infection with Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) is an important co-factor in the etiology of NpC. In other regions of the word (e.g., South-East Asia, Latin America), EBV infection and NpCrelated prevalence and mortality are substantially higher and more alarming. Epidemiological data indicate high prevalence of EBV infection and increased risk for NpC among Central and South American and Asian immigrants in the U.S., and also predict a sharp increase in NpC incidence in the next decade. To face this emerging threat, it is important to develop and validate novel modes of detection and intervention for NpC. To this end, we characterized the proteomic signature of NpC, and of the tumor infiltrating lymphocytes of the CD8+, activated (CD38+, mTOR+) and regulatory immune cell (FoxP3+) phenotype. Paraffinized biopsies were processed, and tissue microarrays constructed and tested by immunohistochemistry and triimmunohistofluorescence for a battery of signaling markers, including AKT and PI3K, in conjunction with EBV status and ANKRD11, an NpC susceptibility biomarker. Microphotographs, analyzed and quantified by confocal microscopy and fractal analysis, suggest new avenues for immunotherapies of NpC.

Influenza 2009 pandemic: Cellular immunemediated surveillance modulated by TH17 & Tregs

Influenza A virus is a serious public health threat. Most recently the 2009/H1N1 pandemic virus had an inherent ability to evade the host's immune surveillance through genetic drift, shift, and genomic reassortment. Immune characterization of 2009/H1N1 utilized monoclonal antibodies, neutralizing sera, and proteomics. Increased age may have provided some degree of immunity, but vaccines against seasonal influenza viruses seldom yield cross-reactive immunity, exemplified by 2009/H1N1. Nonetheless, about 33% of individuals, over the age of 60, had cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies against 2009/H1N1, whereas only 6-9% young adults had these antibodies. Children characteristically had no detectable immunity against 2009/H1N1. Taken together, these observations suggest some degree of immune transference with at least certain strains of virus that have afflicted the human population in past decades. Because internal influenza proteins may exhibit less antigenic variation, it is possible that prior exposure to diverse strains of influenza virus provide some immunity to novel strains, including the recent pandemic strain (swine-avian A/H1N1). Current trends in immunological studies - specifically the modulation of cellular immune surveillance provided by TH17 and Tregs - also support the need for additional proteomic research for characterizing novel translational evidence-based treatment interventions based on cytokine function to help defeat the virus. Timely and critical research must characterize the impact of genetics and epigenetics of oral and systemic host immune surveillance responses to influenza A virus. The continued development and application of proteomics and gene expression across viral strains and human tissues increases our ability to combat the spread of influenza epidemics and pandemics.