Dendritic cells in the cancer microenvironment

Mathematical modeling and analysis of cancer treatment with radiation and anti-PD-L1

In cancer treatment, radiation therapy (RT) induces direct tumor cell death due to DNA damage, but it also enhances the deaths of radiosensitive immune cells and is followed by local relapse and up-regulation of immune checkpoint ligand PD-L1. Since the binding between PD-1 and PD-L1 curtails anti-tumor immunities, combining RT and PD-L1 inhibitor, anti-PD-L1, is a potential method to improve the treatment efficacy by RT. Some experiments support this hypothesis by showing that the combination of ionizing irradiation (IR) and anti-PD-L1 improves tumor reduction comparing to the monotherapy of IR or anti-PD-L1. In this work, we create a simplified ODE model to study the order of tumor growths under treatments of IR and anti-PD-L1. Our synergy analysis indicates that both IR and anti-PD-L1 improve the tumor reduction of each other, when IR and anti-PD-L1 are given simultaneously. When giving IR and anti-PD-L1 separately, a high dosage of IR should be given first to efficiently reduce tumor load and then followed by anti-PD-L1 with strong efficacy to maintain the tumor reduction and slow down the relapse. Increasing the duration of anti-PD-L1 improves the tumor reduction, but it cannot prolong the duration that tumor relapses to the level of the control case. Under some simplification, we also prove that the model has an unstable tumor free equilibrium and a locally asymptotically stable tumor persistent equilibrium. Our bifurcation diagram reveals a transition from tumor elimination to tumor persistence, as the tumor growth rate increases. In the tumor persistent case, both anti-PD-L1 and IR can reduce tumor amount in the long term.

Amino acid metabolic reprogramming in the tumor microenvironment and its implication for cancer therapy

Amino acids are essential building blocks for proteins, crucial energy sources for cell survival, and key signaling molecules supporting the resistant growth of tumor cells. In tumor cells, amino acid metabolic reprogramming is characterized by the enhanced uptake of amino acids as well as their aberrant synthesis, breakdown, and transport, leading to immune evasion and malignant progression of tumor cells. This article reviews the altered amino acid metabolism in tumor cells and its impact on tumor microenvironment, and also provides an overview of the current clinical applications of amino acid metabolism. Innovative drugs targeting amino acid metabolism hold great promise for precision and personalized cancer therapy.

Dendritic Cells in Shaping Anti-Tumor T Cell Response

Among professional antigen-presenting cells, dendritic cells (DCs) orchestrate innate and adaptive immunity and play a pivotal role in anti-tumor immunity. DCs are a heterogeneous population with varying functions in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Tumor-associated DCs differentiate developmentally and functionally into three main subsets: conventional DCs (cDCs), plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), and monocyte-derived DCs (MoDCs). There are two major subsets of cDCs in TME, cDC1 and cDC2. cDC1 is critical for cross-presenting tumor antigens to activate cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and is also required for priming earlier CD4+ T cells in certain solid tumors. cDC2 is vital for priming anti-tumor CD4+ T cells in multiple tumor models. pDC is a unique subset of DCs and produces type I IFN through TLR7 and TLR9. Studies have shown that pDCs are related to immunosuppression in the TME through the secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines and by promoting regulatory T cells. MoDCs differentiate separately from monocytes in response to inflammatory cues and infection. Also, MoDCs can cross-prime CD8+ T cells. In this review, we summarize the subsets and functions of DCs. We also discuss the role of different DC subsets in shaping T cell immunity in TME and targeting DCs for potential immunotherapeutic benefits against cancer.

Cancer stem cell-immune cell crosstalk in the tumor microenvironment for liver cancer progression

Crosstalk between cancer cells and the immune microenvironment is determinant for liver cancer progression. A tumor subpopulation called liver cancer stem cells (CSCs) significantly accounts for the initiation, metastasis, therapeutic resistance, and recurrence of liver cancer. Emerging evidence demonstrates that the interaction between liver CSCs and immune cells plays a crucial role in shaping an immunosuppressive microenvironment and determining immunotherapy responses. This review sheds light on the bidirectional crosstalk between liver CSCs and immune cells for liver cancer progression, as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms after presenting an overview of liver CSCs characteristic and their microenvironment. Finally, we discuss the potential application of liver CSCs-targeted immunotherapy for liver cancer treatment.

The Tumor Immune Microenvironment in Breast Cancer Progression

BACKGROUND

The tumor microenvironment significantly influences breast cancer development, progression, and metastasis. Various immune cell populations, including T cells, B cells, NK cells, and myeloid cells exhibit diverse functions in different breast cancer subtypes, contributing to both anti-tumor and pro-tumor activities.

PURPOSE

This review provides an overview of the predominant immune cell populations in breast cancer subtypes, elucidating their suppressive and prognostic effects. We aim to outline the role of the immune microenvironment from normal breast tissue to invasive cancer and distant metastasis.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to analyze the involvement of immune cells throughout breast cancer progression.

RESULTS

In breast cancer, tumors exhibit increased immune cell infiltration compared to normal tissue. Variations exist across subtypes, with higher levels observed in triple-negative and HER2+ tumors are linked to better survival. In contrast,  ER+ tumors display lower immune infiltration, associated with poorer outcomes. Furthermore, metastatic sites commonly exhibit a more immunosuppressive microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the complex interaction between tumor and immune cells during breast cancer progression is essential for future research and the development of immune-based strategies. This comprehensive understanding may pave the way for more effective treatment approaches and improved patients outcomes.

A lactate-SREBP2 signaling axis drives tolerogenic dendritic cell maturation and promotes cancer progression

Conventional dendritic cells (DCs) are essential mediators of antitumor immunity. As a result, cancers have developed poorly understood mechanisms to render DCs dysfunctional within the tumor microenvironment (TME). After identification of CD63 as a specific surface marker, we demonstrate that mature regulatory DCs (mregDCs) migrate to tumor-draining lymph node tissues and suppress DC antigen cross-presentation in trans while promoting T helper 2 and regulatory T cell differentiation. Transcriptional and metabolic studies showed that mregDC functionality is dependent on the mevalonate biosynthetic pathway and its master transcription factor, SREBP2. We found that melanoma-derived lactate activates SREBP2 in tumor DCs and drives conventional DC transformation into mregDCs via homeostatic or tolerogenic maturation. DC-specific genetic silencing and pharmacologic inhibition of SREBP2 promoted antitumor CD8+ T cell activation and suppressed melanoma progression. CD63+ mregDCs were found to reside within the lymph nodes of several preclinical tumor models and in the sentinel lymph nodes of patients with melanoma. Collectively, this work suggests that a tumor lactate-stimulated SREBP2-dependent program promotes CD63+ mregDC development and function while serving as a promising therapeutic target for overcoming immune tolerance in the TME.

Tumor Microenvironment Modulation by Cancer-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in the process of tumorigenesis, regulating the growth, metabolism, proliferation, and invasion of cancer cells, as well as contributing to tumor resistance to the conventional chemoradiotherapies. Several types of cells with relatively stable phenotypes have been identified within the TME, including cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), neutrophils, and natural killer (NK) cells, which have been shown to modulate cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, and interaction with the immune system, thus promoting tumor heterogeneity. Growing evidence suggests that tumor-cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), via the transfer of various molecules (e.g., RNA, proteins, peptides, and lipids), play a pivotal role in the transformation of normal cells in the TME into their tumor-associated protumorigenic counterparts. This review article focuses on the functions of EVs in the modulation of the TME with a view to how exosomes contribute to the transformation of normal cells, as well as their importance for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Advances in tumor microenvironment and underlying molecular mechanisms of bladder cancer: a systematic review

Bladder cancer is one of the most frequent malignant tumors of the urinary system. The prevalence of bladder cancer among men and women is roughly 5:2, and both its incidence and death have been rising steadily over the past few years. At the moment, metastasis and recurrence of advanced bladder cancer-which are believed to be connected to the malfunction of multigene and multilevel cell signaling network-remain the leading causes of bladder cancer-related death. The therapeutic treatment of bladder cancer will be greatly aided by the elucidation of these mechanisms. New concepts for the treatment of bladder cancer have been made possible by the advancement of research technologies and a number of new treatment options, including immunotherapy and targeted therapy. In this paper, we will extensively review the development of the tumor microenvironment and the possible molecular mechanisms of bladder cancer.

ERS International Congress 2023: highlights from the Basic and Translational Sciences Assembly

Early career members of Assembly 3 (Basic and Translational Sciences) of the European Respiratory Society (ERS) summarise the key messages discussed during six selected sessions that took place at the ERS International Congress 2023 in Milan, Italy. Aligned with the theme of the congress, the first session covered is "Micro- and macro-environments and respiratory health", which is followed by a summary of the "Scientific year in review" session. Next, recent advances in experimental methodologies and new technologies are discussed from the "Tissue modelling and remodelling" session and a summary provided of the translational science session, "What did you always want to know about omics analyses for clinical practice?", which was organised as part of the ERS Translational Science initiative's aims. The "Lost in translation: new insights into cell-to-cell crosstalk in lung disease" session highlighted how next-generation sequencing can be integrated with laboratory methods, and a final summary of studies is presented from the "From the transcriptome landscape to innovative preclinical models in lung diseases" session, which links the transcriptome landscape with innovative preclinical models. The wide range of topics covered in the selected sessions and the high quality of the research discussed demonstrate the strength of the basic and translational science being presented at the international respiratory conference organised by the ERS.

Immune Features of Tumor Microenvironment: A Genetic Spotlight

A tumor represents a highly intricate tissue entity, characterized by an exceptionally complex microenvironment that starkly contrasts with the typical physiological surroundings of healthy tissues. Within this tumor microenvironment (TME), every component and factor assume paramount importance in the progression of malignancy and exerts a pivotal influence on a patient's clinical outcome. One of the remarkable aspects of the TME is its remarkable heterogeneity, not only across different types of cancers but even within the same histological category of tumors. In-depth research has illuminated the intricate interplay between specific immune cells and molecules and the dynamic characteristics of the TME. Recent investigations have yielded compelling evidence that several mutations harbored by tumor cells possess the capacity to instigate substantial alterations in the TME. These mutations, often acting as drivers of tumorigenesis, can orchestrate a cascade of events that remodel the TME, thereby influencing crucial aspects of cancer behavior, including its invasiveness, immune evasion, and response to therapies. It is within this nuanced context that the present study endeavors to provide a concise yet comprehensive summary of how specific mutations, within the genetic landscape of cancer cells, can instigate profound changes in TME features. By elucidating the intricate relationship between genetic mutations and the TME, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of cancer biology. Ultimately, the knowledge gained from this study holds the potential to inform the development of more targeted and effective treatments, thereby offering new hope to patients grappling with the complexities of cancer.

Correlation analysis between peripheral blood dendritic cell subsets and PD-1 in patients with peritoneal adenocarcinoma

The aim of this study was to explore the association between differential percentages of dendritic cell (DC) subsets in peripheral blood and malignancy (grade and lymph node metastasis) of peritoneal adenocarcinoma patients and the frequencies of dendritic cell subsets in the normal controls. The peripheral blood of 30 patients with peritoneal adenocarcinoma and 12 healthy controls were collected for multicolor flow cytometry analysis. Peritoneal adenocarcinoma patients were grouped according to the malignant degree (grade and lymph node metastasis). Percentages of myeloid DCs (mDCs) and its subsets MDC1 and MDC2 in DCs were lower in peripheral blood of patients with peritoneal adenocarcinoma than in normal controls. The percentages of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and CD16+mDCs in DCs were higher than in normal controls. Compared with poor differentiation grade, patients with well/moderate differentiation grade had an increased percentage of CD16+mDCs. Contrary to CD16+mDCs, the percentage of MDC1 was lower in the well/moderate differentiation grade group. In patients with no lymph node metastasis, pDCs and CD16+mDCs levels were higher compared with patients with lymph node metastasis. mDCs and MDC1 levels had opposite results. pDCs were positively correlated with CD16+mDCs in peripheral blood of peritoneal patients, as was mDCs and MDC1. CD16+mDCs were negatively correlated with MDC1. The percentages of pDCs and CD16+mDCs in DCs were positively correlated with CD3+CD8+T cells, and pDCs also positively correlated with CD8+PD-1+T cells. Our results revealed that DCs subsets correlated with peritoneal adenocarcinoma malignancy. Dendritic cells play an independent role in the immune function of peritoneal adenocarcinoma.

Unveiling the mechanisms and challenges of cancer drug resistance

Cancer treatment faces many hurdles and resistance is one among them. Anti-cancer treatment strategies are evolving due to innate and acquired resistance capacity, governed by genetic, epigenetic, proteomic, metabolic, or microenvironmental cues that ultimately enable selected cancer cells to survive and progress under unfavorable conditions. Although the mechanism of drug resistance is being widely studied to generate new target-based drugs with better potency than existing ones. However, due to the broader flexibility in acquired drug resistance, advanced therapeutic options with better efficacy need to be explored. Combination therapy is an alternative with a better success rate though the risk of amplified side effects is commonplace. Moreover, recent groundbreaking precision immune therapy is one of the ways to overcome drug resistance and has revolutionized anticancer therapy to a greater extent with the only limitation of being individual-specific and needs further attention. This review will focus on the challenges and strategies opted by cancer cells to withstand the current therapies at the molecular level and also highlights the emerging therapeutic options -like immunological, and stem cell-based options that may prove to have better potential to challenge the existing problem of therapy resistance. Video Abstract.

Relation of Langerhans cell size to buccal carcinoma

Oral cancer decreases quality of life despite timely medical management. The carcinogens in tobacco products and their role in tumorigenesis are well documented. Langerhans cells (LCs) are a subset of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that monitor the tumor microenvironment and engulf carcinogens and foreign bodies. We investigated the distribution and size of LCs and their relation to the mode of tobacco consumption and clinical outcome in patients with buccal carcinoma. We recruited patients with oral cancer who were scheduled for tumor excision and men with urethral stricture undergoing substitution urethroplasty using buccal mucosa. Normal and tumor-adjacent tissues were stained with CD1a antibody. The distribution and mean diameter of 100 LCs/patient were determined. We found significantly smaller LCs in patients who chewed only tobacco compared to those who consumed tobacco by other means. The size of LCs decreased significantly with progressive stages of malignant disease. We found that patients with larger LCs survived longer than those with smaller LCs during an average follow-up of 24 months. We suggest a relation between the size of LCs and clinical outcomes in patients with buccal carcinoma.

Drug target therapy and emerging clinical relevance of exosomes in meningeal tumors

Meningioma is the most common central nervous system (CNS) tumor. In recent decades, several efforts have been made to eradicate this disease. Surgery and radiotherapy remain the standard treatment options for these tumors. Drug therapy comes to play its role when both surgery and radiotherapy fail to treat the tumor. This mostly happens when the tumors are close to vital brain structures and are nonbenign. Although a wide variety of chemotherapeutic drugs and molecular targeted drugs such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors, alkylating agents, endocrine drugs, interferon, and targeted molecular pathway inhibitors have been studied, the roles of numerous drugs remain unexplored. Recent interest is growing toward studying and engineering exosomes for the treatment of different types of cancer including meningioma. The latest studies have shown the involvement of exosomes in the theragnostic of various cancers such as the lung and pancreas in the form of biomarkers, drug delivery vehicles, and vaccines. Proper attention to this new emerging technology can be a boon in finding the consistent treatment of meningioma.

Multifunctional nanocomposites modulating the tumor microenvironment for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has gained momentum for treating malignant tumors over the past decade. Checkpoint blockade and chimeric antigen receptor cell therapy (CAR-T) have shown considerable potency against liquid and solid cancers. However, the tumor microenvironment (TME) is highly immunosuppressive and hampers the effect of currently available cancer immunotherapies on overall treatment outcomes. Advancements in the design and engineering of nanomaterials have opened new avenues to modulate the TME. Progress in the current nanocomposite technology can overcome immunosuppression and trigger robust immunotherapeutic responses by integrating synergistic functions of different molecules. We will review recent advancements in nanomedical applications and discuss specifically designed nanocomposites modulating the TME for cancer immunotherapy. In addition, we provide information on the current landscape of clinical-stage nanocomposites for cancer immunotherapy.

Anaesthesia in Veterinary Oncology: The Effects of Surgery, Volatile and Intravenous Anaesthetics on the Immune System and Tumour Spread

Throughout the course of oncological disease, the majority of patients require surgical, anaesthetic and analgesic intervention. However, during the perioperative period, anaesthetic agents and techniques, surgical tissue trauma, adjuvant drugs for local pain and inflammation and other non-pharmacological factors, such as blood transfusions, hydration, temperature and nutrition, may influence the prognosis of the disease. These factors significantly impact the oncologic patient's immune response, which is the primary barrier to tumour progress, promoting a window of vulnerability for its dissemination and recurrence. More research is required to ascertain which anaesthetics and techniques have immunoprotective and anti-tumour effects, which will contribute to developing novel anaesthetic strategies in veterinary medicine.

Different mechanisms of CD200-CD200R induce diverse outcomes in cancer treatment

The CD200 is a cell membrane protein expressed by tumor cells, and its receptor CD200 receptor (CD200R) is expressed by immune cells including macrophages and dendritic cells. The formation of CD200-CD200R inhibits the cellular functions of the targeted immune cells, so CD200 is one type of the immune checkpoint and blockade CD200-CD200R formation is a potential cancer treatment. However, the CD200 blockade has opposite treatment outcomes in different types of cancers. For instance, the CD200R deficient mice have a higher tumor load than the wild type (WT) mice in melanoma suggesting that CD200-CD200R inhibits melanoma. On the other hand, the antibody anti-CD200 treatment in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) significantly reduces the tumor load indicating that CD200-CD200R promotes PDAC and HNSCC. In this work, we hypothesize that different mechanisms of CD200-CD200R in tumor microenvironment could be one of the reasons for the diverse treatment outcomes of CD200 blockade in different types of cancers. We create one Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) model for melanoma including the inhibition of CCL8 and regulatory T cells and the switching from M2 to M1 macrophages by CD200-CD200R to capture the tumor inhibition by CD200-CD200R. We also create another ODEs model for PDAC and HNSCC including the promotion of the polarization and suppressive activities of M2 macrophages by CD200-CD200R to generate the tumor promotion by CD200-CD200R. Furthermore, we use these two models to investigate the treatment efficacy of the combination treatment between the CD200-CD200R blockade and the other immune checkpoint inhibitor, anti-PD-1. Our result shows that different mechanisms of CD200-CD200R can induce different treatment outcomes in combination treatments, namely, only the CD200-CD200R blockade reduces tumor load in melanoma and only the anti-PD-1 and CD200 knockout decrease tumor load in PDAC and HNSCC. Moreover, in melanoma, the CD200-CD200R mainly utilizes the inhibitions on M1 macrophages and dendritic cells to inhibit tumor growth, instead of M2 macrophages.

Implications of Rectal Cancer Radiotherapy on the Immune Microenvironment: Allies and Foes to Therapy Resistance and Patients' Outcome

Aside from surgical resection, locally advanced rectal cancer is regularly treated with neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Since the concept of cancer treatment has shifted from only focusing on tumor cells as drivers of disease progression towards a broader understanding including the dynamic tumor microenvironment (TME), the impact of radiotherapy on the TME and specifically the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is increasingly recognized. Both promoting as well as suppressing effects on anti-tumor immunity have been reported in response to rectal cancer (chemo-)radiotherapy and various targets for combination therapies are under investigation. A literature review was conducted searching the PubMed database for evidence regarding the pleiotropic effects of (chemo-)radiotherapy on the rectal cancer TIME, including alterations in cytokine levels, immune cell populations and activity as well as changes in immune checkpoint proteins. Radiotherapy can induce immune-stimulating and -suppressive alterations, potentially mediating radioresistance. The response is influenced by treatment modalities, including the dosage administered and the highly individual intrinsic pre-treatment immune status. Directly addressing the main immune cells of the TME, this review aims to highlight therapeutical implications since efficient rectal cancer treatment relies on personalized strategies combining conventional therapies with immune-modulating approaches, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Advances in dendritic cell vaccination therapy of cancer

Traditionally, vaccines have helped eradication of several infectious diseases and also saved millions of lives in the human history. Those prophylactic vaccines have acted through inducing immune responses against a live attenuated, killed organism or antigenic subunits to protect the recipient against a real infection caused by the pathogenic microorganism. Nevertheless, development of anticancer vaccines as valuable targets in human health has faced challenges and requires further optimizations. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen presenting cells (APCs) that play essential roles in tumor immunotherapies through induction of CD8+ T cell immunity. Accordingly, various strategies have been tested to employ DCs as therapeutic vaccines for exploiting their activity against tumor cells. Application of whole tumor cells or purified/recombinant antigen peptides are the most common approaches for pulsing DCs, which then are injected back into the patients. Although some hopeful results are reported for a number of DC vaccines tested in animal and clinical trials of cancer patients, such approaches are still inefficient and require optimization. Failure of DC vaccination is postulated due to immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), overexpression of checkpoint proteins, suboptimal avidity of tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-specific T lymphocytes, and lack of appropriate adjuvants. In this review, we have an overview of the current experiments and trials evaluated the anticancer efficacy of DC vaccination as well as focusing on strategies to improve their potential including combination therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs).

Focus on T cell exhaustion: new advances in traditional Chinese medicine in infection and cancer

In chronic infections and cancers, T lymphocytes (T cells) are exposed to persistent antigen or inflammatory signals. The condition is often associated with a decline in T-cell function: a state called "exhaustion". T cell exhaustion is a state of T cell dysfunction characterized by increased expression of a series of inhibitory receptors (IRs), decreased effector function, and decreased cytokine secretion, accompanied by transcriptional and epigenetic changes and metabolic defects. The rise of immunotherapy, particularly the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), has dramatically changed the clinical treatment paradigm for patients. However, its low response rate, single target and high immunotoxicity limit its clinical application. The multiple immunomodulatory potential of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) provides a new direction for improving the treatment of T cell exhaustion. Here, we review recent advances that have provided a clearer molecular understanding of T cell exhaustion, revealing the characteristics and causes of T cell exhaustion in persistent infections and cancers. In addition, this paper summarizes recent advances in improving T cell exhaustion in infectious diseases and cancer with the aim of providing a comprehensive and valuable source of information on TCM as an experimental study and their role in collaboration with ICIs therapy.

An immune related signature inhibits the occurrence and development of serous ovarian cancer by affecting the abundance of dendritic cells

Serous ovarian cancer is one of the major causes of cancer related death among women worldwide. The advanced diagnosis worsens the prognosis of patients with serous ovarian cancer. The immune system has an important impact on the progression of ovarian cancer. Herein, we aimed to establish an immune related prognostic signature to assist in the early diagnosis, treatment, and prognostic evaluation of patients with serous ovarian cancer. Multiple public data sets and immune related genes were obtained from various online public databases, and immune related prognostic signatures were developed through differential expression analysis, univariate Cox proportional hazard regression analysis, and the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) Cox regression model. The nomogram model, Kaplan-Meier survival curve analysis, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, and decision curve analysis showed that this signature had a good prediction potential. In conclusion, an immune related signature with good prediction efficiency was established through systematic bioinformatics analysis, which may play a tumor inhibition role by affecting the abundance of activated dendritic cells.

The potential role of the pseudobranch of molly fish (Poecilia sphenops) in immunity and cell regeneration

The pseudobranch is a gill-like structure that exhibits great variations in structure and function among fish species, and therefore, it has remained a topic of investigation for a long time. This study was conducted on adult Molly fish (Poecilia sphenops) to investigate the potential functions of their pseudobranch using histological, histochemical, immunohistochemical analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The pseudobranch of Molly fish was of embedded type. It comprised many rows of parallel lamellae that were fused completely throughout their length by a thin connective tissue. These lamellae consisted of a central blood capillary, surrounded by large secretory pseudobranch cells (PSCs). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed the expression of PSCs for CD3, CD45, iNOS-2, and NF-κB, confirming their role in immunity. Furthermore, T-lymphocytes-positive CD3, leucocytes-positive CD45, and dendritic cells-positive CD-8 and macrophage- positive APG-5 could be distinguished. Moreover, myogenin and TGF-β-positive PSCs were identified, in addition to nests of stem cells- positive SOX-9 were detected. Melanocytes, telocytes, and GFAP-positive astrocytes were also demonstrated. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the PSCs were covered by microridges, which may increase the surface area for ionic exchange. In conclusion, pseudobranch is a highly specialized structure that may be involved in immune response, ion transport, acid-base balance, as well as cell proliferation and regeneration.

Single-cell RNA sequencing uncovers heterogeneous transcriptional signatures in tumor-infiltrated dendritic cells in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the two solid malignancies in which a higher T cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment (TME) corresponds with a worse prognosis for the tumor. The inability of T cells to eliminate tumor cells despite an increase in their number reinforces the possibility of impaired antigen presentation. In this study, we investigated the TME at single-cell resolution to understand the molecular function and communication of dendritic cells (DCs) (as professional antigen-presenting cells). According to our data, tumor cells stimulate the migration of immature DCs to the tumor site by inducing inflammatory chemokines. Many signaling pathways such as TNF-α/NF-κB, IL2/STAT5, and E2F up-regulated after DCs enter the tumor location. In addition, some molecules such as GPR34 and SLCO2B1 decreased on the surface of DCs. The analysis of molecular and signaling alterations in DCs revealed some suppression mechanisms of tumors, such as removing mature DCs, reducing the DC's survival, inducing anergy or exhaustion in the effector T cells, and enhancing the differentiation of T cells to Th2 and T_regs. In addition, we investigated the cellular and molecular communication between DCs and macrophages in the tumor site and found three molecular pairs including CCR5/CCL5, CD52/SIGLEC10, and HLA-DPB1/TNFSF13B. These molecular pairs are involved in the migration of immature DCs to the TME and disrupt the antigen-presenting function of DCs. Furthermore, we presented new therapeutic targets by the construction of a gene co-expression network. These data increase our knowledge of the heterogeneity and the role of DCs in PCa TME.

Metformin plays an antitumor role by downregulating inhibitory cells and immune checkpoint molecules while activating protective immune responses in breast cancer

This study seeks to test the effect of metformin treatment on the outcomes of breast cancer in BALB/c mice bearing 4 T1 breast cancer cells. The survival rate and tumor size of mice were compared, as well as evaluation of the changes of immune cells in spleens and the microenvironment of tumors using flow cytometry and ELISA. Our results demonstrate that metformin prolongs mouse survival. A significant decrease in M2-like macrophages (F4/80⁺CD206⁺) was found in mice spleen treated with metformin. The treatment also inhibited monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (M-MDSCs, CD11b⁺Gr-1⁺) and regulatory T cells (Tregs, CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺). Metformin treatment resulted in an increase in the level of IFN-γ and a decrease in IL-10. Expression of the immune checkpoint molecule PD-1 on T cells was inhibited following treatment. Metformin enhances local antitumor activity in the tumor microenvironment, and our data supports the drug as a candidate for evaluation in the treatment of breast cancer.

A SREBF2-dependent gene program drives an immunotolerant dendritic cell population during cancer progression

Dendritic cells (cDCs) are essential mediators of anti-tumor immunity. Cancers have developed mechanisms to render DCs dysfunctional within the tumor microenvironment. Utilizing CD63 as a unique surface marker, we demonstrate that mature regulatory DCs (mregDCs) suppress DC antigen cross-presentation while driving T _H 2 and regulatory T cell differentiation within tumor-draining lymph node tissues. Transcriptional and metabolic studies show that mregDC functionality is dependent upon the mevalonate biosynthetic pathway and the master transcription factor, SREBP2. Melanoma-derived lactate activates DC SREBP2 in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and drives mregDC development from conventional DCs. DC-specific genetic silencing and pharmacologic inhibition of SREBP2 promotes anti-tumor CD8 ⁺ T cell activation and suppresses melanoma progression. CD63 ⁺ mregDCs reside within the sentinel lymph nodes of melanoma patients. Collectively, this work describes a tumor-driven SREBP2-dependent program that promotes CD63 ⁺ mregDC development and function while serving as a promising therapeutic target for overcoming immune tolerance in the TME.

One Sentence Summary

The metabolic transcription factor, SREBF2, regulates the development and tolerogenic function of the mregDC population within the tumor microenvironment.

Sequencing strategies with ramucirumab and docetaxel following prior treatments for advanced non-small cell lung cancer: a multicenter retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Ramucirumab (RAM) and docetaxel (DOC) are commonly used after first-line therapy for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Therefore, we aimed to elucidate sequencing strategies of RAM and DOC following prior treatments, including immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), cytotoxic agent (CTx) alone, bevacizumab (BEV), and tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI).

METHODS

We recruited patients with NSCLC who received RAM and DOC and compared the groups with and without prior ICI, CTx alone, BEV, and TKI, respectively. By tumor response to such treatments, the patients were further classified into "complete response (CR) + partial response (PR)," "stable disease," and "progressive disease" groups, respectively. We compared RAM and DOC efficacy among these groups.

RESULTS

In total, 237 patients were registered. In the group with prior ICI, the objective response rate and disease control rate were significantly higher than those without prior ICI (p = 0.012 and 0.028, respectively), and the median progression-free survival (PFS) was also significantly longer (p = 0.027). There were no significant differences in PFS between the groups with and without CTx alone, BEV, and TKI. Multivariate analysis revealed that prior ICI was an independent factor associated with better PFS. Furthermore, the prior ICI group with CR + PR significantly prolonged PFS compared to the group without prior ICI (p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

RAM and DOC may be preferably administered after ICI, rather than after CTx alone, BEV, or TKI, and, furthermore, enhanced if the prior ICI has a favorable tumor response.

Role of omega-3 and omega-6 endocannabinoids in cardiopulmonary pharmacology

Endocannabinoids are derived from dietary omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and play an important role in regulation of inflammation, development, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. They elicit this effect via interactions with cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 which are also targeted by plant derived cannabinoid from cannabis. The evidence of the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in cardiopulmonary function comes from studies that show that cannabis consumption leads to cardiovascular effect such as arrythmia and is beneficial in lung cancer patients. Moreover, omega-3 and omega-6 endocannabinoids play several important roles in cardiopulmonary system such as causing airway relaxation, suppressing atherosclerosis and hypertension. These effects are mediated via the cannabinoids receptors that are abundant in the cardiopulmonary system. Overall, this chapter reviews the known role of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids in the cardiopulmonary context.

Integrated analyzes identify CCT3 as a modulator to shape immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in lung adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Chaperonin-containing tailless complex polypeptide 1 (TCP1) subunit 3 (CCT3) has tumor-promoting effects in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). This study aims to investigate the molecular mechanisms of CCT3 in LUAD oncogenesis.

METHODS

The UALCAN databases, Human Protein Atlas (HPA) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data were used to analyze CCT3 expression in LUAD. Both the Wilcoxon rank-sum test and the regression model were used to investigate the connection between clinicopathologic characteristics of LUAD patients and CCT3 expression. The prognostic value of CCT3 was determined by Cox regression models, the Kaplan-Meier method and Nomogram prediction. Next, we identified the most related genes with CCT3 via GeneMANIA and String databases, and the association between CCT3 and infiltrated immune cells using single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA). CCT3-related pathway enrichment analysis was investigated by GSEA. Finally, CCT3 roles in cell proliferation and apoptosis of LUAD A549 cells was verified by siRNA (small interfering RNA) mediated CCT3 knockdown.

RESULTS

CCT3 was upregulated in LUAD both in mRNA and protein levels. CCT3 overexpression was associated with clinicopathological characteristics including sex, smoking, T- and N-categories, pathological staging, and a poor prognosis of LUAD patients. GeneMANIA and String databases found a set of CCT3-related genes that are connected to the assembly and stability of proteins involved in proteostasis of cytoskeletal filaments, DNA repair and protein methylation. Furthermore, CCT3 was found to be positively correlated with the infiltrating Th2 cells (r = 0.442, p < 0.01) while negatively correlated with mast cells (r = -0.49, p < 0.01) and immature dendritic cells (iDCs, r = -0.401, p < 0.001) according to ssGSEA analyzes. The pathway analysis based on GSEA method showed that the cell cycle pathway, the protein export pathway, the proteasome pathway and the ribosome pathway are enriched in CCT3 high group, whereas the JAK/STAT pathway, B cell receptor pathway, T cell receptor pathway and toll like receptor pathway were enriched in CCT3 low group. Finally, CCT3 knockdown substantially inhibited proliferation while promoted apoptosis of A549 cells.

CONCLUSION

Integrated analyzes identify CCT3 as a modulator to shape immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in LUAD and therefore, a prognostic factor for LUAD.

Improving head and neck cancer therapies by immunomodulation of the tumour microenvironment

Targeted immunotherapy has improved patient survival in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), but less than 20% of patients produce a durable response to these treatments. Thus, new immunotherapies that consider all key players of the complex HNSCC tumour microenvironment (TME) are necessary to further enhance tumour-specific T cell responses in patients. HNSCC is an ideal tumour type in which to evaluate immune and non-immune cell differences because of two distinct TME aetiologies (human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive and HPV-negative disease), multiple anatomic sites for tumour growth, and clear distinctions between patients with locally advanced disease and those with recurrent and/or metastatic disease. Recent technological and scientific advancements have provided a more complete picture of all cellular constituents within this complex TME and have evaluated the interplay of both immune and non-immune cells within HNSCC. Here, we include a comprehensive analysis of the complete ecosystem of the HNSCC TME, performed utilizing data-rich resources such as The Cancer Genome Atlas, and cutting-edge techniques, such as single-cell RNA sequencing, high-dimensional flow cytometry and spatial multispectral imaging, to generate improved treatment strategies for this diverse disease.

Evaluation of innate and adaptive immune system interactions in the tumor microenvironment via a 3D continuum model

Immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are known to affect tumor growth, vascularization, and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Marked interest in system-scale analysis of immune species interactions within the TME has encouraged progress in modeling tumor-immune interactions in silico. Due to the computational cost of simulating these intricate interactions, models have typically been constrained to representing a limited number of immune species. To expand the capability for system-scale analysis, this study develops a three-dimensional continuum mixture model of tumor-immune interactions to simulate multiple immune species in the TME. Building upon a recent distributed computing implementation that enables efficient solution of such mixture models, major immune species including monocytes, macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, neutrophils, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), cytotoxic, helper, regulatory T-cells, and effector and regulatory B-cells and their interactions are represented in this novel implementation. Immune species extravasate from blood vasculature, undergo chemotaxis toward regions of high chemokine concentration, and influence the TME in proportion to locally defined levels of stimulation. The immune species contribute to the production of angiogenic and tumor growth factors, promotion of myofibroblast deposition of ECM, upregulation of angiogenesis, and elimination of living and dead tumor species. The results show that this modeling approach offers the capability for quantitative insight into the modulation of tumor growth by diverse immune-tumor interactions and immune-driven TME effects. In particular, MDSC-mediated effects on tumor-associated immune species' activation levels, volume fraction, and influence on the TME are explored. Longer term, linking of the model parameters to particular patient tumor information could simulate cancer-specific immune responses and move toward a more comprehensive evaluation of immunotherapeutic strategies.

Overcoming Suppressive Tumor Microenvironment by Vaccines in Solid Tumor

Conventional vaccines are widely used to boost human natural ability to defend against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. Recently, therapeutic cancer vaccines attracted the most attention for anti-cancer therapy. According to the main components, it can be divided into five types: cell, DNA, RNA, peptide, and virus-based vaccines. They mainly perform through two rationales: (1) it trains the host immune system to protect itself and effectively eradicate cancer cells; (2) these vaccines expose the immune system to molecules associated with cancer that enable the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. In this review, we thoroughly summarized the potential strategies and technologies for developing cancer vaccines, which may provide critical achievements for overcoming the suppressive tumor microenvironment through vaccines in solid tumors.

SMAC mimetics inhibit human T cell proliferation and fail to augment type 1 cytokine responses

Second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC) mimetics are small molecule drugs that mimic the activity of the endogenous SMAC protein. SMAC and SMAC mimetics antagonize inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), thereby sensitizing cells to apoptosis. As such, SMAC mimetics are being tested in numerous clinical trials for cancer. In addition to their direct anti-cancer effect, it has been suggested that SMAC mimetics may activate T cells, thereby promoting anti-tumor immunity. Here, we tested the effect of three clinically relevant SMAC mimetics on activation of primary human T cells. As previously reported, SMAC mimetics killed tumor cells and activated non-canonical NF-κB in T cells at clinically relevant doses. Surprisingly, none of the SMAC mimetics augmented T cell responses. Rather, SMAC mimetics impaired T cell proliferation and decreased the proportion of IFNγ/TNFα double-producing T cells. These results question the assumption that SMAC mimetics are likely to boost anti-tumor immunity in cancer patients.

Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Cancer and COVID-19 as Associated with Oxidative Stress

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells MDSCs are a heterogeneous population of cells that expand beyond their physiological regulation during pathologies such as cancer, inflammation, bacterial, and viral infections. Their key feature is their remarkable ability to suppress T cell and natural killer NK cell responses. Certain risk factors for severe COVID-19 disease, such as obesity and diabetes, are associated with oxidative stress. The resulting inflammation and oxidative stress can negatively impact the host. Similarly, cancer cells exhibit a sustained increase in intrinsic ROS generation that maintains the oncogenic phenotype and drives tumor progression. By disrupting endoplasmic reticulum calcium channels, intracellular ROS accumulation can disrupt protein folding and ultimately lead to proteostasis failure. In cancer and COVID-19, MDSCs consist of the same two subtypes (PMN-MSDC and M-MDSC). While the main role of polymorphonuclear MDSCs is to dampen the response of T cells and NK killer cells, they also produce reactive oxygen species ROS and reactive nitrogen species RNS. We here review the origin of MDSCs, their expansion mechanisms, and their suppressive functions in the context of cancer and COVID-19 associated with the presence of superoxide anion •O2- and reactive oxygen species ROS.

Dendritic cells and natural killer cells: The road to a successful oncolytic virotherapy

Every type of cancer tissue is theoretically more vulnerable to viral infection. This natural proclivity has been harnessed as a new anti-cancer therapy by employing oncolytic viruses (OVs) to selectively infect and destroy cancer cells while providing little or no harm with no toxicity to the host. Whereas the primary oncolytic capabilities of OVs initially sparked the greatest concern, the predominant focus of research is on the association between OVs and the host immune system. Numerous OVs are potent causal agents of class I MHC pathway-related chemicals, enabling early tumor/viral immune recognition and cytokine-mediated response. The modified OVs have been studied for their ability to bind to dendritic cells (DCs) by expressing growth factors, chemokines, cytokines, and defensins inside the viral genome. OVs, like reovirus, can directly infect DCs, causing them to release chemokines and cytokines that attract and excite natural killer (NK) cells. In addition, OVs can directly alter cancer cells' sensitivity to NK by altering the expression levels of NK cell activators and inhibitors on cancerous cells. Therefore, NK cells and DCs in modulating the therapeutic response should be considered when developing and improving future OV-based therapeutics, whether modified to express transgenes or used in combination with other drugs/immunotherapies. Concerning the close relationship between NK cells and DCs in the potential of OVs to kill tumor cells, we explore how DCs and NK cells in tumor microenvironment affect oncolytic virotherapy and summarize additional information about the interaction mentioned above in detail in this work.

Cancer therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitor and CSF-1 blockade: A mathematical model

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) introduced in recent years have revolutionized the treatment of many metastatic cancers. However, data suggest that treatment has benefits only in a limited percentage of patients, and that this is due to immune suppression of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Anti-tumor inflammatory macrophages (M1), which are attracted to the TME, are converted by tumor secreted cytokines, such as CSF-1, to pro-tumor anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2), or tumor associated macrophages (TAMs), which block the anti-tumor T cells. In the present paper we develop a mathematical model that represents the interactions among the immune cells and cancer in terms of differential equations. The model can be used to assess treatments of combination therapy of anti-PD-1 with anti-CSF-1. Examples are given in comparing the efficacy among different strategies for anti-CSF-1 dosing in a setup of clinical trials.

New Therapeutics for HCC: Does Tumor Immune Microenvironment Matter?

The incidence of liver cancer is continuously rising where hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains the most common form of liver cancer accounting for approximately 80-90% of the cases. HCC is strongly prejudiced by the tumor microenvironment and being an inflammation-associated condition, the contribution of various immune mechanisms is critical in its development, progression, and metastasis. The tumor immune microenvironment is initially inflammatory which is subsequently replenished by the immunosuppressive cells contributing to tumor immune escape. Regardless of substantial advancement in systemic therapy, HCC has poor prognosis and outcomes attributed to the drug resistance, recurrence, and its metastatic behavior. Therefore, currently, new immunotherapeutic strategies are extensively targeted in preclinical and clinical settings in order to elicit robust HCC-specific immune responses and appear to be quite effective, extending current treatment alternatives. Understanding the complex interplay between the tumor and the immune cells and its microenvironment will provide new insights into designing novel immunotherapeutics to overcome existing treatment hurdles. In this review, we have provided a recent update on immunological mechanisms associated with HCC and discussed potential advancement in immunotherapies for HCC treatment.

Optimal timing of steroid initiation in response to CTLA-4 antibody in metastatic cancer: A mathematical model

Immune checkpoint inhibitors, introduced in recent years, have revolutionized the treatment of many cancers. However, the toxicity associated with this therapy may cause severe adverse events. In the case of advanced lung cancer or metastatic melanoma, a significant number (10%) of patients treated with CTLA-4 inhibitor incur damage to the pituitary gland. In order to reduce the risk of hypophysitis and other severe adverse events, steroids may be combined with CTLA-4 inhibitor; they reduce toxicity, but they also diminish the anti-cancer effect of the immunotherapy. This trade-off between tumor reduction and the risk of severe adverse events poses the following question: What is the optimal time to initiate treatment with steroid. We address this question with a mathematical model from which we can also evaluate the comparative benefits of each schedule of steroid administration. In particular, we conclude that treatment with steroid should not begin too early, but also not very late, after immunotherapy began; more precisely, it should start as soon as tumor volume, under the effect of CTLA-4 inhibitor alone, begins to decrease. We can also compare the benefits of short term treatment of steroid at high doses to a longer term treatment with lower doses.

Manganese Coordination Micelles That Activate Stimulator of Interferon Genes and Capture In Situ Tumor Antigens for Cancer Metalloimmunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy holds great promise but is generally limited by insufficient induction of anticancer immune responses. Here, a metal micellar nanovaccine is developed by the self-assembly of manganese (Mn), a stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist (ABZI) and naphthalocyanine (ONc) coordinated nanoparticles (ONc-Mn-A) in maleimide-modified Pluronic F127 (malF127) micelles. Owing to synergy between Mn and ABZI, the nanovaccine, termed ONc-Mn-A-malF127, elevates levels of interferon-β (IFNβ) by 324- and 8-fold in vivo, compared to use of Mn or ABZI alone. As such, the activation of the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS)-STING pathway induces sufficient dendritic cell (DC) maturation, eventually resulting in the death of CD8⁺ T cell-sensitive tumors and CD8⁺ T cell-resistant tumors by simultaneously promoting cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells, respectively. Furthermore, with ONc used as a Mn chelator and an efficient photosensitizer, photoinduced immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells releases damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and neoantigens from dying primary tumor cells upon laser irradiation, which are captured in situ by malF127 in tumor cells and then transported to DCs. After laser treatment, in addition to the photothermal therapy, immune responses characterized by the level of IFNβ are further elevated by another 4-fold. In murine cancer models, ICD-based metalloimmunotherapy using the ONc-Mn-A-malF127 nanovaccine in a single dose by intravenous injection achieved eradication of primary and distant tumors. Taken together, ONc-Mn-A-malF127 offers a nanoplatform to enhance anticancer efficacy by metalloimmunotherapy and photoinduced ICD based immunotherapy with strong abscopal effect.

Cationic Polyethyleneimine (PEI)–Gold Nanocomposites Modulate Macrophage Activation and Reprogram Mouse Breast Triple-Negative MET-1 Tumor Immunological Microenvironment

Nanomedicines based on inorganic nanoparticles have grown in the last decades due to the nanosystems’ versatility in the coating, tuneability, and physical and chemical properties. Nonetheless, concerns have been raised regarding the immunotropic profile of nanoparticles and how metallic nanoparticles affect the immune system. Cationic polymer nanoparticles are widely used for cell transfection and proved to exert an adjuvant immunomodulatory effect that improves the efficiency of conventional vaccines against infection or cancer. Likewise, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) also exhibit diverse effects on immune response depending on size or coatings. Photothermal or photodynamic therapy, radiosensitization, and drug or gene delivery systems take advantage of the unique properties of AuNPs to deeply modify the tumoral ecosystem. However, the collective effects that AuNPs combined with cationic polymers might exert on their own in the tumor immunological microenvironment remain elusive. The purpose of this study was to analyze the triple-negative breast tumor immunological microenvironment upon intratumoral injection of polyethyleneimine (PEI)–AuNP nanocomposites (named AuPEI) and elucidate how it might affect future immunotherapeutic approaches based on this nanosystem. AuPEI nanocomposites were synthesized through a one-pot synthesis method with PEI as both a reducing and capping agent, resulting in fractal assemblies of about 10 nm AuNPs. AuPEI induced an inflammatory profile in vitro in the mouse macrophage-like cells RAW264.7 as determined by the secretion of TNF-α and CCL5 while the immunosuppressor IL-10 was not increased. However, in vivo in the mouse breast MET-1 tumor model, AuPEI nanocomposites shifted the immunological tumor microenvironment toward an M2 phenotype with an immunosuppressive profile as determined by the infiltration of PD-1-positive lymphocytes. This dichotomy in AuPEI nanocomposites in vitro and in vivo might be attributed to the highly complex tumor microenvironment and highlights the importance of testing the immunogenicity of nanomaterials in vitro and more importantly in vivo in relevant immunocompetent mouse tumor models to better elucidate any adverse or unexpected effect.

Analysis and identification of the necroptosis landscape on therapy and prognosis in bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is one of the most common malignant tumors of the urinary system, but the current therapeutic strategy based on chemotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy cannot meet the treatment needs, mainly owing to the endogenous or acquired apoptotic resistance of cancer cells. Targeting necroptosis provides a novel strategy for chemotherapy and targeted drugs and improves the efficacy of ICIs because of strong immunogenicity of necroptosis. Therefore, we systemically analyzed the necroptosis landscape on therapy and prognosis in BLCA. We first divided BLCA patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database into two necroptosis-related clusters (C1 and C2). Necroptosis C2 showed a significantly better prognosis than C1, and the differential genes of C2 and C1 were mainly related to the immune response according to GO and KEGG analyses. Next, we constructed a novel necroptosis-related gene (NRG) signature consisting of SIRT6, FASN, GNLY, FNDC4, SRC, ANXA1, AIM2, and IKBKB to predict the survival of TCGA-BLCA cohort, and the accuracy of the NRG score was also verified by external datasets. In addition, a nomogram combining NRG score and several clinicopathological features was established to more accurately and conveniently predict the BLCA patient’s survival. We also found that the NRG score was significantly related to the infiltration levels of CD8 T cells, NK cells, and iDC cells, the gene expression of CTLA4, PD-1, TIGIT, and LAG3 of TME, and the sensitivity to chemotherapy and targeted agents in BLCA patients. In conclusion, the NRG score has an excellent performance in evaluating the prognosis, clinicopathologic features, tumor microenvironment (TME), and therapeutic sensitivity of BLCA patients, which could be utilized as a guide for chemotherapy, ICI therapy, and combination therapy.

Dendritic Cells: The Long and Evolving Road towards Successful Targetability in Cancer

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a unique myeloid cell lineage that play a central role in the priming of the adaptive immune response. As such, they are an attractive target for immune oncology based therapeutic approaches. However, targeting these cells has proven challenging with many studies proving inconclusive or of no benefit in a clinical trial setting. In this review, we highlight the known and unknown about this rare but powerful immune cell. As technologies have expanded our understanding of the complexity of DC development, subsets and response features, we are now left to apply this knowledge to the design of new therapeutic strategies in cancer. We propose that utilization of these technologies through a multiomics approach will allow for an improved directed targeting of DCs in a clinical trial setting. In addition, the DC research community should consider a consensus on subset nomenclature to distinguish new subsets from functional or phenotypic changes in response to their environment.

Immune Cells in Head-and-Neck Tumor Microenvironments

Head-and-neck cancers constitute a heterogeneous group of aggressive tumors with high incidence and low survival rates, collectively being the sixth most prevalent cancer type globally. About 90% of head-and-neck cancers are classified as squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC). The innate and adaptive immune systems, indispensable for anti-cancer immune surveillance, largely define the rates of HNSCC emergence and progression. HNSCC microenvironments harbor multiple cell types that infiltrate the tumors and interact both with tumor cells and among themselves. Gradually, tumor cells learn to manipulate the immune system, either by adapting their own immunogenicity or through the release of immunosuppressive molecules. These interactions continuously evolve and shape the tumor microenvironment, both structurally and functionally, facilitating angiogenesis, proliferation and metastasis. Our understanding of this evolution is directly related to success in the development of advanced therapies. This review focuses on the key mechanisms that rule HNSCC infiltration, featuring particular immune cell types and their roles in the pathogenesis. A close focus on the tumor-immunity interactions will help identify new immunotherapeutic targets in patients with HNSCC.

The application of the natural killer cells, macrophages and dendritic cells in treating various types of cancer

Innate immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) are involved in the surveillance and clearance of tumor. Intensive research has exposed the mechanisms of recognition and elimination of tumor cells by these immune cells as well as how cancers evade immune response. Hence, harnessing the immune cells has proven to be an effective therapy in treating a variety of cancers. Strategies aimed to harness and augment effector function of these cells for cancer therapy have been the subject of intense researches over the decades. Different immunotherapeutic possibilities are currently being investigated for anti-tumor activity. Pharmacological agents known to influence immune cell migration and function include therapeutic antibodies, modified antibody molecules, toll-like receptor agonists, nucleic acids, chemokine inhibitors, fusion proteins, immunomodulatory drugs, vaccines, adoptive cell transfer and oncolytic virus–based therapy. In this review, we will focus on the preclinical and clinical applications of NK cell, macrophage and DC immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

Mathematical Modeling and Analysis of CD200-CD200R in Cancer Treatment

CD200 is a cell membrane protein that binds to its receptor, CD200 receptor (CD200R). The CD200 positive tumor cells inhibit the cellular functions of M1 and M2 macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) through the CD200-CD200R complex, resulting in downregulation of Interleukin-10 and Interleukin-12 productions and affecting the activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. In this work, we provide two ordinary differential equation models, one complete model and one simplified model, to investigate how the binding affinities of CD200R and the populations of M1 and M2 macrophages affect the functions of the CD200-CD200R complex in tumor growth. Our simulations demonstrate that (i) the impact of the CD200-CD200R complex on tumor promotion or inhibition highly depends on the binding affinity of the CD200R on M2 macrophages and DCs to the CD200 on tumor cells, and (ii) a stronger binding affinity of the CD200R on M1 macrophages or DCs to the CD200 on tumor cells induces a higher tumor cell density in the CD200 positive tumor. Thus, the CD200 blockade would be an efficient treatment method in this case. Moreover, the simplified model shows that the binding affinity of CD200R on macrophages is the major factor to determine the treatment efficacy of CD200 blockade when the binding affinities of CD200R on M1 and M2 macrophages are significantly different to each other. On the other hand, both the binding affinity of CD200R and the population of macrophages are the major factors to determine the treatment efficacy of CD200 blockade when the binding affinities of CD200R on M1 and M2 macrophages are close to each other. We also analyze the simplified model to investigate the dynamics of the positive and trivial equilibria of the CD200 positive tumor case and the CD200 deficient tumor case. The bifurcation diagrams show that when M1 macrophages dominate the population, the tumor cell density of the CD200 positive tumor is higher than the one of CD200 deficient tumor. Moreover, the dynamics of tumor cell density change from tumor elimination to tumor persistence to oscillation, as the maximal proliferation rate of tumor cells increases.

CD47xCD19 bispecific antibody triggers recruitment and activation of innate immune effector cells in a B-cell lymphoma xenograft model

Background

CD47/SIRPα axis is recognized as an innate immune checkpoint and emerging clinical data validate the interest of interrupting this pathway in cancer, particularly in hematological malignancies. In preclinical models, CD47/SIRPα blocking agents have been shown to mobilize phagocytic cells and trigger adaptive immune responses to eliminate tumors. Here, we describe the mechanisms afforded by a CD47xCD19 bispecific antibody (NI-1701) at controlling tumor growth in a mouse xenograft B-cell lymphoma model.

Methods

The contribution of immune effector cell subsets behind the antitumor activity of NI-1701 was investigated using flow cytometry, transcriptomic analysis, and in vivo immune-cell depletion experiments.

Results

We showed that NI-1701 treatment transformed the tumor microenvironment (TME) into a more anti-tumorigenic state with increased NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells (DC) and MHCII^hi tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and decreased granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Notably, molecular analysis of isolated tumor-infiltrating leukocytes following NI-1701 administration revealed an upregulation of genes linked to immune activation, including IFNγ and IL-12b. Moreover, TAM-mediated phagocytosis of lymphoma tumor cells was enhanced in the TME in the presence of NI-1701, highlighting the role of macrophages in tumor control. In vivo cell depletion experiments demonstrated that both macrophages and NK cells contribute to the antitumor activity. In addition, NI-1701 enhanced dendritic cell-mediated phagocytosis of tumor cells in vitro, resulting in an increased cross-priming of tumor-specific CD8 T cells.

Conclusions

The study described the mechanisms afforded by the CD47xCD19 bispecific antibody, NI-1701, at controlling tumor growth in lymphoma mouse model. NI-1701 is currently being evaluated in a Phase I clinical trial for the treatment of refractory or relapsed B-cell lymphoma (NCT04806035).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40164-022-00279-w.

Arginase: An emerging and promising therapeutic target for cancer treatment

Arginase is a key hydrolase in the urea cycle that hydrolyses L-arginine to urea and L-ornithine. Increasing number of studies in recent years demonstrate that two mammalian arginase isoforms, arginase 1 (ARG1) and arginase 2 (ARG2), were aberrantly upregulated in various types of cancers, and played crucial roles in the regulation of tumor growth and metastasis through various mechanisms such as regulating L-arginine metabolism, influencing tumor immune microenvironment, etc. Thus, arginase receives increasing focus as an attractive target for cancer therapy. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological and biological roles of arginase in a variety of cancers, and shed light on the underlying mechanisms of arginase mediating cancer cells growth and development, as well as summarize the recent clinical research advances of targeting arginase for cancer therapy.

The Beneficial Effect of IL-12 and IL-18 Transduced Dendritic Cells Stimulated with Tumor Antigens on Generation of an Antitumor Response in a Mouse Colon Carcinoma Model

The main purpose of our study was to determine the effect of dendritic cell (DC) transduction with lentiviral vectors carrying sequences of il18 and/or il12 genes on the level of antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. We examined the ability of DCs to migrate to the tumor-draining lymph nodes and infiltrate tumor tissue and to activate the local and systemic antitumor response. On the 15th day, DCs genetically modified for production of IL-12 and/or IL-18 were administered peritumorally to C57BL/6 female mice with established MC38 tumors. Lymphoid organs and tumor tissue were collected from mice on the 3rd, 5th, and 7th days after a single administration of DCs for further analysis. Administration of DCs transduced for production of IL-12 alone and in combination with IL-18 increased the inflow and activity of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment and tumor-draining lymph nodes. We also found that even a single administration of such modified DCs could trigger a systemic antitumor response as well as inhibit tumor growth. Application of the developed DC-based vaccines may exert a favorable impact on stimulation of an antitumor immune response, especially if these DC vaccines are administered repeatedly.

Engineering Radiosensitizer-Based Metal-Phenolic Networks Potentiate STING Pathway Activation for Advanced Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy, a mainstay of first-line cancer treatment, suffers from its high-dose radiation-induced systemic toxicity and radioresistance caused by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The synergy between radiosensitization and immunomodulation may overcome these obstacles for advanced radiotherapy. Here, the authors propose a radiosensitization cooperated with stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway activation strategy by fabricating a novel lanthanide-doped radiosensitizer-based metal-phenolic network, NaGdF₄ :Nd@NaLuF₄ @PEG-polyphenol/Mn (DSPM). The amphiphilic PEG-polyphenol successfully coordinates with NaGdF₄ :Nd@NaLuF₄ (radiosensitizer) and Mn²⁺ via robust metal-phenolic coordination. After cell internalization, the pH-responsive disassembly of DSPM triggers the release of their payloads, wherein radiosensitizer sensitizes cancer cells to X-ray and Mn²⁺ promote STING pathway activation. This radiosensitizer-based DSPM remarkably benefits dendritic cell maturation, anticancer therapeutics in primary tumors, accompanied by robust systemic immune therapeutic performance against metastatic tumors. Therefore, a powerful radiosensitization with STING pathway activation mediated immunostimulation strategy is highlighted here to optimize cancer radiotherapy.