HMGB1-Induced p62 Overexpression Promotes Snail-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Glioblastoma Cells via the Degradation of GSK-3β

Involvement of RAGE in radiation-induced acquisition of malignant phenotypes in human glioblastoma cells

Glioblastoma (GBM), a highly aggressive malignant tumor of the central nervous system, is mainly treated with radiotherapy. However, since irradiation may lead to the acquisition of migration ability by cancer cells, thereby promoting tumor metastasis and invasion, it is important to understand the mechanism of cell migration enhancement in order to prevent recurrence of GBM. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a pattern recognition receptor activated by high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). In this study, we found that RAGE plays a role in the enhancement of cell migration by γ-irradiation in human GBM A172 cells. γ-Irradiation induced actin remodeling, a marker of motility acquisition, and enhancement of cell migration in A172 cells. Both phenotypes were suppressed by specific inhibitors of RAGE (FPS-ZM1 and TTP488) or by knockdown of RAGE. The HMGB1 inhibitor ethyl pyruvate similarly suppressed γ-irradiation-induced enhancement of cell migration. In addition, γ-irradiation-induced phosphorylation of STAT3 was suppressed by RAGE inhibitors, and a STAT3 inhibitor suppressed γ-irradiation-induced enhancement of cell migration, indicating that STAT3 is involved in the migration enhancement downstream of RAGE. Our results suggest that HMGB1-RAGE-STAT3 signaling is involved in radiation-induced enhancement of GBM cell migration, and may contribute to GBM recurrence by promoting metastasis and invasion.

Benzo[a]pyrene evokes epithelial-mesenchymal transition and pulmonary fibrosis through AhR-mediated Nrf2-p62 signaling

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and its metabolic end product benzo(a)pyren-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE), are known toxic environmental pollutants. This study aimed to analyze whether sub-chronic BPDE exposure initiated pulmonary fibrosis and the potential mechanisms. In this work, male C57BL6/J mice were exposed to BPDE by dynamic inhalation exposure for 8 weeks. Our results indicated that sub-chronic BPDE exposure evoked pulmonary fibrosis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in mice. Both in vivo and in vitro, BPDE exposure promoted nuclear translocation of Snail. Further experiments indicated that nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and p62 were upregulated in BPDE-exposed alveolar epithelial cells. Moreover, Nrf2 siRNA transfection evidently attenuated BPDE-induced p62 upregulation. Besides, p62 shRNA inhibited BPDE-incurred Snail nuclear translocation and EMT. Mechanically, BPDE facilitated physical interaction between p62 and Snail in the nucleus, then repressed Snail protein degradation by p62-dependent autophagy-lysosome pathway, and finally upregulated transcriptional activity of Snail. Additionally, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) was activated in BPDE-treated alveolar epithelial cells. Dual-luciferase assay indicated activating AhR could bind to Nrf2 gene promoter. Moreover, pretreatment with CH223191 or α-naphthoflavone (α-NF), AhR antagonists, inhibited BPDE-activated Nrf2-p62 signaling, and alleviated BPDE-induced EMT and pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Taken together, AhR-mediated Nrf2-p62 signaling contributes to BaP-induced EMT and pulmonary fibrosis.

Deciphering the roles of the HMGB family in cancer: Insights from subcellular localization dynamics

The high-mobility group box (HMGB) family consists of four DNA-binding proteins that regulate chromatin structure and function. In addition to their intracellular functions, recent studies have revealed their involvement as extracellular damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), contributing to immune responses and tumor development. The HMGB family promotes tumorigenesis by modulating multiple processes including proliferation, metabolic reprogramming, metastasis, immune evasion, and drug resistance. Due to the predominant focus on HMGB1 in the literature, little is known about the remaining members of this family. This review summarizes the structural, distributional, as well as functional similarities and distinctions among members of the HMGB family, followed by a comprehensive exploration of their roles in tumor development. We emphasize the distributional and functional hierarchy of the HMGB family at both the organizational and subcellular levels, with a focus on their relationship with the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), aiming to prospect potential strategies for anticancer therapy.

Immunological nanomaterials to combat cancer metastasis

Metastasis causes greater than 90% of cancer-associated deaths, presenting huge challenges for detection and efficient treatment of cancer due to its high heterogeneity and widespread dissemination to various organs. Therefore, it is imperative to combat cancer metastasis, which is the key to achieving complete cancer eradication. Immunotherapy as a systemic approach has shown promising potential to combat metastasis. However, current clinical immunotherapies are not effective for all patients or all types of cancer metastases owing to insufficient immune responses. In recent years, immunological nanomaterials with intrinsic immunogenicity or immunomodulatory agents with efficient loading have been shown to enhance immune responses to eliminate metastasis. In this review, we would like to summarize various types of immunological nanomaterials against metastasis. Moreover, this review will summarize a series of immunological nanomaterial-mediated immunotherapy strategies to combat metastasis, including immunogenic cell death, regulation of chemokines and cytokines, improving the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, activation of the STING pathway, enhancing cytotoxic natural killer cell activity, enhancing antigen presentation of dendritic cells, and enhancing chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy. Furthermore, the synergistic anti-metastasis strategies based on the combinational use of immunotherapy and other therapeutic modalities will also be introduced. In addition, the nanomaterial-mediated imaging techniques (e.g., optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, photoacoustic imaging, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, radionuclide imaging, etc.) for detecting metastasis and monitoring anti-metastasis efficacy are also summarized. Finally, the current challenges and future prospects of immunological nanomaterial-based anti-metastasis are also elucidated with the intention to accelerate its clinical translation.

Recent Progress in Anti-Tumor Nanodrugs Based on Tumor Microenvironment Redox Regulation

The growth state of tumor cells is strictly affected by the specific abnormal redox status of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Moreover, redox reactions at the biological level are also central and fundamental to essential energy metabolism reactions in tumors. Accordingly, anti-tumor nanodrugs targeting the disruption of this abnormal redox homeostasis have become one of the hot spots in the field of nanodrugs research due to the effectiveness of TME modulation and anti-tumor efficiency mediated by redox interference. This review discusses the latest research results of nanodrugs in anti-tumor therapy, which regulate the levels of oxidants or reductants in TME through a variety of therapeutic strategies, ultimately breaking the original "stable" redox state of the TME and promoting tumor cell death. With the gradual deepening of study on the redox state of TME and the vigorous development of nanomaterials, it is expected that more anti-tumor nano drugs based on tumor redox microenvironment regulation will be designed and even applied clinically.

Impact of HMGB1 on cancer development and therapeutic insights focused on CNS malignancy

The present study explores the complex roles of High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) in the context of cancer development, emphasizing glioblastoma (GBM) and other central nervous system (CNS) cancers. HMGB1, primarily known for its involvement in inflammation and angiogenesis, emerges as a multifaceted player in the tumorigenesis of GBM. The overexpression of HMGB1 correlates with glioma malignancy, influencing key pathways like RAGE/MEK/ERK and RAGE/Rac1. Additionally, HMGB1 secretion is linked to the maintenance of glioma stem cells (GSCs) and contributes to the tumor microenvironment's (TME) vascular leakiness. Henceforth, our review discusses the bidirectional impact of HMGB1, acting as both a promoter of tumor progression and a mediator of anti-tumor immune responses. Notably, HMGB1 exhibits tumor-suppressive roles by inducing apoptosis, limiting cellular proliferation, and enhancing the sensitivity of GBM to therapeutic interventions. This dualistic nature of HMGB1 calls for a nuanced understanding of its implications in GBM pathogenesis, offering potential avenues for more effective and personalized treatment strategies. The findings underscore the need to explore HMGB1 as a prognostic marker, therapeutic target, and a promising tool for stimulating anti-tumor immunity in GBM.

Ascorbic acid mitigates the impact of oxidative stress in a human model of febrile seizure and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

Prolonged febrile seizures (FS) in children are linked to the development of temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE). The association between these two pathologies may be ascribed to the long-term effects that FS exert on neural stem cells, negatively affecting the generation of new neurons. Among the insults associated with FS, oxidative stress is noteworthy. Here, we investigated the consequences of exposure to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in an induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cells (iNSCs) model of a patient affected by FS and MTLE. In our study, we compare the findings from the MTLE patient with those derived from iNSCs of a sibling exhibiting a milder phenotype defined only by FS, as well as a healthy individual. In response to H2O2 treatment, iNSCs derived from MTLE patients demonstrated an elevated production of reactive oxygen species and increased apoptosis, despite the higher expression levels of antioxidant genes and proteins compared to other cell lines analysed. Among the potential causative mechanisms of enhanced vulnerability of MTLE patient iNSCs to oxidative stress, we found that these cells express low levels of the heat shock protein HSPB1 and of the autophagy adaptor SQSTM1/p62. Pre-treatment of diseased iNSCs with the antioxidant molecule ascorbic acid restored HSBP1 and p62 expression and simultaneously reduced the levels of ROS and apoptosis. Our findings suggest the potential for rescuing the impaired oxidative stress response in diseased iNSCs through antioxidant treatment, offering a promising mechanism to prevent FS degeneration in MTLE.

HMGB1 enhances the migratory and invasive abilities of A2780/DDP cells by facilitating epithelial to mesenchymal transition via GSK‑3β

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact and mechanism of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) on the regulation of cell migration and invasion in A2780/DDP cisplatin-resistant ovarian cancer cells. After transfecting small interfering (si)RNA-HMGB1 into A2780/DDP cells, Transwell migration and invasion assays were conducted to assess alterations in the cell migratory and invasive abilities. Additionally, western blotting analyses were performed to examine changes in HMGB1, phosphorylated (p)-GSK-3β, GSK-3β, E-cadherin and vimentin expression levels. The results of the present study demonstrated that the migratory and invasive abilities of A2780/DDP cells were significantly higher compared with those of A2780 cells. Additionally, the expression levels of HMGB1, p-GSK-3β and the mesenchymal phenotype marker, vimentin, in A2780/DDP cells were significantly elevated relative to the levels in A2780 cells. Conversely, the expression level of the epithelial phenotype marker, E-cadherin, was markedly decreased compared with that in A2780 cells. Following transfection of A2780/DDP cells with siRNA-HMGB1, there was a significant reduction in the rate of cell migration and invasion. Simultaneously, the expression levels of HMGB1, p-GSK-3β and vimentin were downregulated while the level of E-cadherin was upregulated. It was therefore concluded that the high expression of HMGB1 in A2780/DDP cells enhanced the cell migration and invasion abilities by facilitating epithelial to mesenchymal transition via GSK-3β.

Nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of SQSTM1/p62 protein enhances ESCC cell migration and invasion by stabilizing EPLIN expression

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is an aggressive malignant disease with a poor prognosis. We previously found that p62 presented a marked nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation in ESCC cells as compared that in normal esophageal epithelial cells, but its effects on ESCC cells remain unclear. This study aims to clarify the impacts of different cellular localization of p62 on the function of ESCC cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We here demonstrated that cytoplasmic p62 enhances the migration and invasion abilities of esophageal cancer cells, whereas nuclear p62 has no effect. We further explored the interaction protein of p62 by using GST pull-down experiment and identified EPLIN as a potential protein interacting with p62. In addition, reducing EPLIN expression significantly inhibited the migration and invasion of ESCC cells, which were rescued when EPLIN expression was restored after the p62 knockdown. At a molecular level, p62 in cytoplasm positively regulated the expression of EPLIN via enhancing its protein stability. Data from the TCGA and GEO database displayed a significant up-regulation of EPLIN mRNA expression in ESCC tissues compared with corresponding paired esophageal epithelial samples. Our findings present evidence that the nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of p62 protein contributes to an aggressive malignancy phenotype, providing candidate molecular biomarkers and potential molecular targets for the diagnosis and treatment of ESCC.

New insights into the role of GSK-3β in the brain: from neurodegenerative disease to tumorigenesis

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is a serine/threonine kinase widely expressed in various tissues and organs. Unlike other kinases, GSK-3 is active under resting conditions and is inactivated upon stimulation. In mammals, GSK-3 includes GSK-3 α and GSK-3β isoforms encoded by two homologous genes, namely, GSK3A and GSK3B. GSK-3β is essential for the control of glucose metabolism, signal transduction, and tissue homeostasis. As more than 100 known proteins have been identified as GSK-3β substrates, it is sometimes referred to as a moonlighting kinase. Previous studies have elucidated the regulation modes of GSK-3β. GSK-3β is involved in almost all aspects of brain functions, such as neuronal morphology, synapse formation, neuroinflammation, and neurological disorders. Recently, several comparatively specific small molecules have facilitated the chemical manipulation of this enzyme within cellular systems, leading to the discovery of novel inhibitors for GSK-3β. Despite these advancements, the therapeutic significance of GSK-3β as a drug target is still complicated by uncertainties surrounding the potential of inhibitors to stimulate tumorigenesis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the intricate mechanisms of this enzyme and evaluates the existing evidence regarding the therapeutic potential of GSK-3β in brain diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, mood disorders, and glioblastoma.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) extracted from Bacteroides vulgatus effectively prevents LPS extracted from Escherichia coli from inducing epithelial‑mesenchymal transition

Pathological epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been shown to fulfill a key role in the development and progression of a variety of lung diseases. It has been demonstrated that the inflammatory microenvironment is a decisive factor in inducing pathological EMT. Hexacylated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) [or proacylated lipopolysaccharide (P‑LPS), which functions as proinflammatory lipopolysaccharide] is one of the most effective Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonists. Furthermore, the pentacylated and tetracylated form of lipopolysaccharide (or A‑LPS, which functions as anti‑inflammatory lipopolysaccharide) has been shown to elicit competitive antagonistic effects against the pro‑inflammatory activity of P‑LPS. At present, it remains unclear whether LPS extracted from Bacteroides vulgatus (BV‑LPS) can prevent LPS extracted from Escherichia coli (EC‑LPS) from inducing pathological EMT. In the present study, A549 cells and C57BL/6 mice lung tissue were both induced by EC‑LPS (P‑LPS) and BV‑LPS (A‑LPS), either alone or in combination. The anticipated anti‑inflammatory effects of BV‑LPS were analyzed by examining the lung coefficient, lung pathology, A549 cell morphology and expression levels both of the inflammatory cytokines, IL‑1β, IL‑6 and TNF‑α and of the EMT signature proteins, epithelial cadherin (E‑cadherin), α‑smooth muscle actin (α‑SMA) and vimentin. In addition, the expression levels of TLR4, bone morphogenic protein and activin membrane‑bound inhibitor (BAMBI) and Snail were detected and the possible mechanism underlying how BV‑LPS may prevent EC‑LPS‑induced EMT was analyzed. The results obtained showed that the morphology of the A549 cells was significantly polarized, the lung index was significantly increased, the alveolar structure was collapsed and the expression levels of IL‑1β, IL‑6, TNF‑α, α‑SMA, vimentin, TLR4 and Snail in both lung tissue and A549 cells were significantly increased, whereas those of E‑cadherin and BAMBI were significantly decreased. Treatment with BV‑LPS in combination with EC‑LPS was found to reverse these changes. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that BV‑LPS is able to effectively prevent EC‑LPS‑induced EMT in A549 cells and in mouse lung tissue and furthermore, the underlying mechanism may be associated with inhibition of the TLR4/BAMBI/Snail signaling pathway.

The Importance of M1-and M2-Polarized Macrophages in Glioma and as Potential Treatment Targets

Glioma is the most common and malignant tumor of the central nervous system. Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive glioma, with a poor prognosis and no effective treatment because of its high invasiveness, metabolic rate, and heterogeneity. The tumor microenvironment (TME) contains many tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which play a critical role in tumor proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis and indirectly promote an immunosuppressive microenvironment. TAM is divided into tumor-suppressive M1-like (classic activation of macrophages) and tumor-supportive M2-like (alternatively activated macrophages) polarized cells. TAMs exhibit an M1-like phenotype in the initial stages of tumor progression, and along with the promotion of lysing tumors and the functions of T cells and NK cells, tumor growth is suppressed, and they rapidly transform into M2-like polarized macrophages, which promote tumor progression. In this review, we discuss the mechanism by which M1- and M2-polarized macrophages promote or inhibit the growth of glioblastoma and indicate the future directions for treatment.

circ_0008285 Regulates Glioma Progression via the miR-384/HMGB1 Axis

Background

Recent studies indicate that circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been implicated in the initiation or progression of a wide spectrum of diseases. In the current study, we explored the potential engagement of circ_0008285 in glioma and investigated the downstream regulators.

Methods

The detection of circ_0008285 level in glioma specimens and cell lines was conducted by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The chi-squared test was employed to evaluate the relationship between the circ_0008285 level and the clinical features of glioma patients. The roles of circ_0008285 on the proliferation and apoptosis of glioma cells were studied by knockdown experiment. Meanwhile, the regulatory relationship of circ_0008285, miR-384, and high mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1) was explored in glioma cells, and we explored the effects of circ_0008285/miR-384/HMGB1 pathway on glioma cells.

Results

In glioma specimens and cell lines, the expression of circ_0008285 was significantly increased, and a high circ_0008285 level was associated with a larger tumor size and more advanced grading in glioma patients. Furthermore, downregulating circ_0008285 suppressed proliferation and triggered apoptosis of glioma cells, which was associated with a cell cycle arrest at the G1/G0 phase. Mechanism studies indicated that circ_0008285 regulated HMGB1 by sponging miR-384. Functional experiments demonstrated that circ_0008285 promoted the malignant phenotype of glioma cells by miR-384/HMGB1 axis.

Conclusion

Our study revealed circ_0008285 as a novel oncogenic factor in glioma through modulating the miR-384/HMGB1 pathway, suggesting that targeting circ_0008285 could serve as a strategy for glioma management.

Early growth response 1 promoted the invasion of glioblastoma multiforme by elevating HMGB1

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and deadly glioma subtype. Early growth response 1 (EGR1) participates in the progression of several cancer types, but the expression and function of EGR1 in GBM was rarely investigated.

METHODS

The expressions of EGR1 in GBM were detected with qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry in 12 pairs of fresh GBM tissues and 116 paraffin-embedded specimens. The patients were divided into high and low EGR1 groups according to the IHC score of EGR1, and the prognostic significances of different groups were evaluated with univariate and multivariate analyses. With in-vitro experiments, we assessed the role of EGR1 in the proliferation and invasion of GBM cells.

RESULTS

In our study, EGR1 was up-regulated in GBM tissues compared with tumor-adjacent normal tissues. High expression of EGR1 or HMGB1 were unfavorable prognostic biomarkers of GBM. Coexpression of EGR1 and HMGB1 could predict the prognosis of GBM more sensitively. EGR1 facilitated the proliferation and invasion of GBM cells. Moreover, EGR1 promoted the invasion, instead of proliferation, of GBM cells by elevating the expression of HMGB1.

CONCLUSIONS

ERG1 was a prognostic biomarker of GBM, and ERG1 and HMGB1 synergistically could predict the GBM prognosis more precisely. ERG1 could promote GBM cell invasion by inducing HMGB1 expression.

Expression of intra-tumoral necrosis-associated cytokine pattern correlated with prognosis and immune status in glioma

Intra-tumoral necrosis (ITN) is reported to be an independent prognostic factor in glioma. However, knowledge of ITN is mainly limited to pseudopalisadwe, while its other aspects were neglected. Therefore, a deeper understanding of ITN could be valuable for understanding its exact role in glioma. The only reliable ITN model was time-dependently achieved with the GL261 syngeneic mouse model. The ITN-associated expression pattern was enriched from RNA sequencing. TCGA glioma samples were clustered into a high-expression group (HEG) and a low-expression group (LEG) based on their pattern and their association with prognosis, clinical status, immune status, and therapeutic responsiveness were compared. Mouse glioma with ITN demonstrated invasive histology. Cytokine signaling was significantly enriched in necrotic mouse glioma compared with non-necrotic glioma tissues. Nine pro-inflammatory (IL6, PPBP, IL1A, TNFSF11, CXCL11, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL3, and CCL8) and two anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL1RN and IL10) genes were found to be related to ITN-associated cytokine patterns. Comparative analysis showed that HEG had a significantly shorter survival time, five differentially distributed clinical statuses, more infiltrated immune cells, greater expression of immune checkpoints, and better therapeutic responsiveness than LEG. In conclusion, the ITN-associated cytokine pattern is characteristically expressed in glioma with ITN and might indicate necrosis missed in histology diagnosis. Its expression pattern could predict the prognosis, tumor grade, immune status, and therapeutic responsiveness of glioma patients.

G6PD drives glioma invasion by regulating SQSTM1 protein stability

Glioma is an incurable brain tumor with high recurrence due to the frequent invasion of neoplastic cells. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is a critical enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) whose aberrant expression drives the pathogenesis of various cancers. Recent research has identified other moonlight modes of enzymes besides the well-known regulation of metabolic reprogramming. Here, we identified previously unexplored roles of G6PD in glioma via gene set variation analysis (GSVA) based on the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) database. Furthermore, survival analyses revealed that glioma patients with high G6PD expression had a worse outcome than patients with low G6PD expression (Hazard Ratio (95%CI): 2.96 (2.41, 3.64), p = 3.5E-22). Combined with functional assays, G6PD was shown to be related with the migration and invasion in glioma. G6PD knockdown could inhibit the migration in LN229 cells. And G6PD overexpression enhanced LN229 cell migration and invasion. Mechanically, the knockdown of G6PD reduced sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1) protein stability under cycloheximide (CHX) treatment. Moreover, the overexpression of SQSTM1 rescued the impaired migrated and invasive phenotypes in G6PD-silenced cells. Clinically, we validated the role of G6PD-SQSTM1 axis in glioma prognosis by constructing the multivariate cox proportional hazards regression model. These results define a pivotal function of G6PD in modulating SQSTM1 to promote glioma aggressiveness. And G6PD may be a prognostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target in glioma. G6PD-SQSTM1 axis may be a potential prognostic biomarker in glioma.

Molecular mechanisms of microRNAs in glioblastoma pathogenesis

Glioblastoma (GBM) is human's most prevalent and severe brain cancer. Epigenetic regulators, micro(mi)RNAs, significantly impact cellular health and disease because of their wide range of targets and functions. The "epigenetic symphony" in which miRNAs perform is responsible for orchestrating the transcription of genetic information. The discovery of regulatory miRNA activities in GBM biology has shown that various miRNAs play a vital role in disease onset and development. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the current state-of-the-art and latest findings regarding the interactions between miRNAs and molecular mechanisms commonly associated with GBM pathogenesis. Moreover, by literature review and reconstruction of the GBM gene regulatory network, we uncovered the connection between miRNAs and critical signaling pathways such as cell proliferation, invasion, and cell death, which provides promising hints for identifying potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of GBM. In addition, the role of miRNAs in GBM patient survival was investigated. The present review, which contains new analyses of the previous literature, may lead to new avenues to explore in the future for the development of multitargeted miRNA-based therapies for GBM.

Knockdown of HMGB1 inhibits the crosstalk between oral squamous cell carcinoma cells and tumor-associated macrophages

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), the major component of the tumor microenvironment (TME), play distinctly different roles in different tumors. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nonhistone protein in the nucleus, can perform functions during inflammation and cancers. However, the role of HMGB1 in the crosstalk between oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells and TAMs remains unclear. Here, we established a coculture system of TAMs and OSCC cells to explore the bidirectional effect and potential mechanism of HMGB1 in OSCC cell-TAM interactions. Our results showed that HMGB1 was significantly upregulated in OSCC tissues and positively associated with tumor progression, immune cell infiltration and macrophage polarization. Then, knocking down HMGB1 in OSCC cells inhibited the recruitment and polarization of cocultured TAMs. Moreover, the knockdown of HMGB1 in macrophages not only suppressed polarization, but also inhibited cocultured OSCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, macrophages secreted higher levels of HMGB1 than OSCC cells, and dampening endogenous HMGB1 reduced HMGB1 secretion. Both OSCC cell-generated and macrophage-endogenous HMGB1 may regulate TAM polarization by promoting receptor TLR4 expression and NF-κB/p65 activation and enhancing IL-10/TGF-β expression. HMGB1 in OSCC cells may regulate macrophage recruitment via IL-6/STAT3. In addition, TAM-derived HMGB1 may affect aggressive phenotypes of cocultured OSCC cells by regulating the immunosuppressive microenvironment through the IL-6/STAT3/PD-L1 and IL-6/NF-κB/MMP-9 pathways. In conclusion, HMGB1 may regulate the crosstalk between OSCC cells and TAMs, including modulating macrophage polarization and attraction, enhancing cytokine secretion, and remodeling and creating an immunosuppressive TME to further affect OSCC progression.

Inhibition of p62 and/or NFE2L2 induced autophagy impaires esophageal squamous cell cancer metastasis by reversing EMT

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) pathogenesis is influenced by both NFE2L2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) and SQSTM1 (sequestosome 1), also known as p62. However, while there is evidence that these two proteins can interact with one another in a range of pathological contexts, whether these interactions govern the development or progression of ESCC remains unknown. In the present study, analyses of the GEPIA database revealed the simultaneous upregulation of both NFE2L2 and p62 in ESCC, as was further confirmed through biochemical analyses conducted with a human tumor microarray. Knocking down the expression of one or both of these factors demonstrated that both p62 and NFE2L2 mediate the progression of ESCC, as such downregulation altered the morphological characteristics of these cells and suppressed the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Strikingly, these experiments revealed synergistic interactions between NFE2L2 and p62 in the promotion of ESCC invasivity and EMT induction. The treatment of cells with the autophagy inhibitors 3-MA, however, was sufficient to partially reverse the anti-metastatic effects of knocking down p62 and/or NFE2L2. Together, these data illustrate the ability of p62 and NFE2L2 to function in a synergistic manner, promoting ESCC cell metastatic progression and EMT induction through mechanisms linked to autophagic activity. As such, efforts to simultaneously target both of these proteins may represent a viable means of providing new treatment options to ESCC patients.

The Absence of Gasdermin D Reduces Nuclear Autophagy in a Cecal Ligation and Puncture-Induced Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy Mouse Model

Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a common complication of sepsis, which is a life-threatening condition resulting from a dysregulated host response to infection. Pyroptosis, a pro-inflammatory mode of lytic cell death mediated by GSDMD (Gasdermin D), is involved in the pathogenesis of SAE. While autophagy has been extensively studied in SAE, the role of nuclear autophagy is not yet well understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the involvement of pyroptosis and neural nuclear autophagy in the pathogenesis of SAE. We analyzed a CLP (cecal ligation and puncture)-induced SAE model in wild-type and GSDMD−/− mice to gain insights into the underlying mechanisms. Here, we show that in sepsis, neural nuclear autophagy is extremely activated, and nuclear LaminB decreases and is accompanied by an increase in the ratio of LC3BII/I. These effects can be reversed in GSDMD−/− mice. The behavioral outcomes of septic wild-type mice are impaired by the evidence from the novel object recognition test (NORT) and open field test (OFT), but are improved in septic GSDMD−/− mice. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the activation of neural nuclear autophagy in SAE. The absence of GSDMD inhibits nuclear autophagy and improves the behavioral outcomes of SAE.

UBE2E2 enhances Snail-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition and Nrf2-mediated antioxidant activity in ovarian cancer

Dissemination of ovarian cancer (OvCa) cells can lead to inoperable metastatic lesions in the bowel and omentum, which have a poor prognosis despite surgical and chemotherapeutical options. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying metastasis is urgently needed. In this study, bioinformatics analyses revealed that UBE2E2, a less-studied ubiquitin (Ub)-conjugating enzyme (E2), was upregulated in OvCa and was associated with poor prognosis. Subsequently, we performed western blot analysis and IHC staining with 88 OvCa and 26 normal ovarian tissue samples, which further confirmed that UBE2E2 protein is highly expressed in OvCa tissue but weakly expressed in normal tissue. Furthermore, the silencing of UBE2E2 blocked OvCa cell migration, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis in vitro, whereas UBE2E2 overexpression exerted the opposite effects. Mechanistically, UBE2E2 promoted p62 accumulation and increased the activity of the Nrf2-antioxidant response element (ARE) system, which ultimately activated the Snail signaling pathway by inhibiting the ubiquitin-mediated degradation of Snail. Additionally, co-IP and immunofluorescence demonstrated that a direct interaction exists between UBE2E2 and Nrf2, and the N-terminal of UBE2E2 (residues 1-52) is required and sufficient for its interaction with Nrf2 protein. Mutations in the active site cysteine (Cys139) impaired both the function and cellular distribution of UBE2E2. More importantly, the deletion of UBE2E2 reduced tumorigenicity and metastasis in xenograft OvCa mouse models. Taken together, our findings reveal the role of the UBE2E2-Nrf2-p62-Snail signaling axis in OvCa and thus provides novel therapeutic targets for the prevention of OvCa metastasis.

Exploring the role of Nrf2 signaling in glioblastoma multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive glial cell tumors in adults. Although current treatment options for GBM offer some therapeutic benefit, median survival remains poor and does not generally exceed 14 months. Several genes, such as isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) enzyme and O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), have been implicated in pathogenesis of the disease. Treatment is often adapted based on the presence of IDH mutations and MGMT promoter methylation status. Recent GBM cell line studies have associated Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2) expression with high-grade tumors. Increased Nrf2 expression is often found in tumors with IDH-1 mutations. Nrf2 is an important transcription factor with anti-apoptotic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and proliferative properties due to its complex interactions with multiple regulatory pathways. In addition, evidence suggests that Nrf2 promotes  GBM cell survival in hypoxic environment,by up-regulating hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Downregulation of Nrf2 has been shown to improve GBM sensitivity to chemotherapy drugs such as Temozolomide. Thus, Nrf2 could be a key regulator of GBM pathways and potential therapeutic target.  Further research efforts exploring an interplay between Nrf2 and major molecular signaling mechanisms could offer novel GBM drug candidates with a potential to significantly improve patients prognosis.

Machine learning identification of cuproptosis and necroptosis-associated molecular subtypes to aid in prognosis assessment and immunotherapy response prediction in low-grade glioma

Both cuproptosis and necroptosis are typical cell death processes that serve essential regulatory roles in the onset and progression of malignancies, including low-grade glioma (LGG). Nonetheless, there remains a paucity of research on cuproptosis and necroptosis-related gene (CNRG) prognostic signature in patients with LGG. We acquired patient data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and captured CNRGs from the well-recognized literature. Firstly, we comprehensively summarized the pan-cancer landscape of CNRGs from the perspective of expression traits, prognostic values, mutation profiles, and pathway regulation. Then, we devised a technique for predicting the clinical efficacy of immunotherapy for LGG patients. Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) defined by CNRGs with prognostic values was performed to generate molecular subtypes (i.e., C1 and C2). C1 subtype is characterized by poor prognosis in terms of disease-specific survival (DSS), progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS), more patients with G3 and tumour recurrence, high abundance of immunocyte infiltration, high expression of immune checkpoints, and poor response to immunotherapy. LASSO-SVM-random Forest analysis was performed to aid in developing a novel and robust CNRG-based prognostic signature. LGG patients in the TCGA and GEO databases were categorized into the training and test cohorts, respectively. A five-gene signature, including SQSTM1, ZBP1, PLK1, CFLAR, and FADD, for predicting OS of LGG patients was constructed and its predictive reliability was confirmed in both training and test cohorts. In both the training and the test datasets (cohorts), higher risk scores were linked to a lower OS rate. The time-dependent ROC curve proved that the risk score had outstanding prediction efficiency for LGG patients in the training and test cohorts. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses showed the CNRG-based prognostic signature independently functioned as a risk factor for OS in LGG patients. Furthermore, we developed a highly reliable nomogram to facilitate the clinical practice of the CNRG-based prognostic signature (AUC > 0.9). Collectively, our results gave a promising understanding of cuproptosis and necroptosis in LGG, as well as a tailored prediction tool for prognosis and immunotherapeutic responses in patients.

Clinical Characterization and Prognostic Value of TPM4 and Its Correlation with Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition in Glioma

Tropomyosin 4 (TPM4) has been reported as an oncogenic gene across different malignancies. However, the role of TPM4 in glioma remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the clinical characterization and prognostic value of TPM4 in gliomas. Transcriptome expression and clinical information were collected from the CGGA and TCGA datasets, which included 998 glioma patients. ScRNA-seq data were obtained from CGGA. R software was utilized for statistical analyses. There was a positive correlation between TPM4 and WHO grades. IDH-wildtype and mesenchymal subtype gliomas were accompanied by TPM4 upregulation. GO and GSEA analysis suggested that TPM4 was profoundly associated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Subsequent GSVA revealed a robust correlation between TPM4 and three signaling pathways of EMT (hypoxia, TGF-β, PI3K/AKT). Furthermore, TPM4 showed a synergistic effect with mesenchymal biomarkers, particularly with N-cadherin, Slug, Snail, TWIST1, and vimentin. ScRNA-seq analysis suggested that higher TPM4 was mainly attributed to tumor cells and macrophages and associated with tumor cell progression and macrophage polarization. Finally, high TPM4 was significantly associated with unfavorable outcomes. In conclusion, our findings indicate that TPM4 is significantly correlated with more malignant characteristics of gliomas, potentially through involvement in EMT. TPM4 could predict worse survival for patients with glioma.

TMEM158 promotes the proliferation and migration of glioma cells via STAT3 signaling in glioblastomas

Glioblastoma is the most common primary intracranial malignant tumor in adults and has high morbidity and high mortality. TMEM158 has been reported to promote the progression of solid tumors. However, its potential role in glioma is still unclear. Here, we found that TMEM158 expression in human glioma cells in the tumor core was significantly higher than that in noncancerous cells at the tumor edge using bioinformatics analysis. Cancer cells in patients with primary GBMs harbored significantly higher expression of TMEM158 than those in patients with WHO grade II or III gliomas. Interestingly, regardless of tumor grading, human glioma samples that were IDH1-wild-type (IDH1-WT) exhibited higher expression of TMEM158 than those with IDH1-mutant (IDH1-Mut). We also illustrated that TMEM158 mRNA expression was correlated with poor overall survival in glioma patients. Furthermore, we demonstrated that silencing TMEM158 inhibited the proliferation of glioma cells and that TMEM158 overexpression promoted the migration and invasion of glioma cells by stimulating the EMT process. We found that the underlying mechanism involves STAT3 activation mediating TMEM158-driven glioma progression. In vivo results further confirmed the inhibitory effect of the TMEM158 downregulation on glioma growth. Collectively, these findings further our understanding of the oncogenic function of TMEM158 in gliomas, which represents a potential therapeutic target, especially for GBMs.

SQSTM1/p62 in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma promotes tumor progression via epithelial-mesenchymal transition and mitochondrial function maintenance

BACKGROUND

SQSTM1/p62 is a selective autophagy receptor that regulates multiple signaling pathways participating in the initiation and progression of tumors. Metastasis is still the main cause for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC)-associated mortality. Hence, this study aimed to explore the mechanism of p62 promoting the progression of ICC.

METHODS

Western blotting and immunohistochemical analyses were conducted to detect the expression level of protein p62 in ICC tissues and its correlation with prognosis. Subsequently, the loss-of-function experiments in vitro and in vivo were performed to define the role of p62 in ICC cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Then, the effect of p62 knockdown on mitochondrial function and mitophagy was evaluated by measuring the oxygen consumption rate, and using immunofluorescence and western blotting analyses.

RESULTS

The expression of p62 was significantly upregulated in ICC specimens compared with normal tissues. We further illustrated that p62 expression positively correlated with lymph node metastasis and poor prognosis. The loss-of-function assays revealed that p62 not only promoted ICC cell proliferation, migration, and invasive capacities in vitro, but also induced lung metastasis in the xenograft mouse model. Mechanistically, high expression of p62-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) with the upregulation of Snail, vimentin, N-cadherin, and downregulation of E-cadherin. Moreover, the autophagy-dependent function of p62 might play a vital role in maintaining the mitochondrial function of ICC by mitophagy which might further promote EMT.

CONCLUSION

These data provided new evidence for the mechanism by which abundant p62 expression promoted ICC progression, suggesting a promising therapeutic target for antimetastatic strategies in patients with ICC.

Up-regulation of LINC00665 contributes to the progression of glioma and correlates with its MRI characteristics

BACKGROUND

LncRNA LINC00665 partakes in controlling the malignant phenotype of cancer cells, but its role in glioma and the related regulatory mechanism remain uncertain.

METHODS

RT-PCR was exploited to examine LINC00665 expression. The relationships among the LINC00665 expression, the clinicopathologic values and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) characteristics of glioma were analyzed. The multiplication, movement, and aggressiveness of glioma cell lines were evaluated by CCK-8, EdU, and Transwell experiments after constructing LINC00665 overexpression and LINC00665 knockdown cell models. A dual-luciferase reporter gene experiment and RIP experiment were executed to validate the interactions between LINC00665 and miR-129-5p, and between miR-129-5p and HMGB1. Western blot and RT-PCR were conducted to find the impact of LINC00665 and miR-129-5p on HMGB1 expression. Nude mouse model was also constructed to examine the impact of LINC00665 on multiplication and aggressiveness of glioma cells in vivo.

RESULTS

LINC00665 expression was markedly increased in glioma. High LINC00665 expression in glioma was closely linked to larger tumor diameter, higher pathologic grade, heterogeneous MRI signal of the tumor, increased peritumoral edema, and stronger MRI enhancement characteristics. LINC00665 overexpression facilitated the malignant behavior of glioma cells, while LINC00665 knockdown played the reverse role. Mechanistically, LINC00665 could decoy miR-129-5p, and indirectly increased HMGB1 expression.

CONCLUSION

LINC00665 functions as an oncogenic lncRNA in glioma, to accelerate glioma progression by modulating miR-129-5p and increasing HMGB1 expression.

MEOX2-mediated regulation of Cathepsin S promotes cell proliferation and motility in glioma

Nuclear transcription factor Mesenchyme Homeobox 2 (MEOX2) is a homeobox gene that is originally discovered to suppress the growth of vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells. However, whether or not it is connected to cancer is yet unknown. Here, we report that MEOX2 functions as a tumor-initiating element in glioma. Bioinformatic analyses of public databases and investigation of MEOX2 expression in patients with glioma demonstrated that MEOX2 was abundant at both mRNA and protein levels in glioma. MEOX2 expression was shown to be inversely linked with the prognosis of glioma patients. MEOX2 inhibition changed the morphology of glioma cells, inhibited cell proliferation and motility, whereas had no effect on cell apoptosis. Besides, silencing MEOX2 also hampered the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), focal adhesion formation, and F-actin assembly. Overexpression of MEOX2 exhibited opposite effects. Importantly, RNA-sequencing, ChIP-qPCR assay, and luciferase reporter assay revealed Cathepsin S (CTSS) as a novel transcriptional target of MEOX2 in glioma cells. Consistently, MEOX2 causes glioma tumor development in mice and greatly lowers the survival period of tumor-bearing mice. Our findings indicate that MEOX2 promotes tumorigenesis and progression of glioma partially through the regulation of CTSS. Targeting MEOX2-CTSS axis might be a promising alternative for the treatment of glioma.

GSK-3 Inhibition Is Cytotoxic in Glioma Stem Cells through Centrosome Destabilization and Enhances the Effect of Radiotherapy in Orthotopic Models

BACKGROUND

Previous data on glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) inhibition in cancer models support a cytotoxic effect with selectivity for tumor cells compared to normal tissue but the effect of these inhibitors in glioma has not been widely studied. Here, we investigate their potential as cytotoxics in glioma.

METHODS

We assessed the effect of pharmacologic GSK-3 inhibition on established (U87, U251) and patient-derived (GBM1, GBM4) glioblastoma (GBM) cell lines using cytotoxicity assays as well as undertaking a detailed investigation of the effect on cell cycle, mitosis, and centrosome biology. We also assessed drug uptake and efficacy of GSK-3 inhibition alone and in combination with radiation in xenograft models.

RESULTS

Using the selective GSK-3 inhibitor AZD2858, we demonstrated single agent cytotoxicity in two patient-derived glioma cell lines (GBM1, GBM4) and two established cell lines (U251 and U87) with IC50 in the low micromolar range promoting centrosome disruption, failed mitosis, and S-phase arrest. Glioma xenografts exposed to AZD2858 also showed growth delay compared to untreated controls. Combined treatment with radiation increased the cytotoxic effect of clinical radiation doses in vitro and in orthotopic glioma xenografts.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that GSK-3 inhibition promotes cell death in glioma through disrupting centrosome function and promoting mitotic failure and that AZD2858 is an effective adjuvant to radiation at clinical doses.

Exogenous HMGB1 Promotes the Proliferation and Metastasis of Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Background: Exogenous HMGB1 plays a vital role in tumor recurrence, and HMGB1 is ubiquitous in the tumor microenvironment. However, the mechanism of action is still unclear. We investigated the role of exogenous HMGB1 in tumor proliferation and metastasis using human SW1990 and PANC-1 cells after radiotherapy and explored the possible molecular mechanism.

Materials and Methods: Residual PANC-1 cells and SW1990 cells were isolated after radiotherapy. The supernatant after radiotherapy was collected. The relative expression of HMGB1 was evaluated by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Electron microscope (EMS) was used to collect the images of pancreatic cancer cells pre and post radiotherapy treatment. The proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells which were treated with different radiation doses was measured by Carboxy Fluorescein Succinimidyl Ester (CFSE). The migration rates of pancreatic cancer cells were measured by wound healing assays. Subsequently, the expression of related proteins was detected by Western Blot. In vivo, the subcutaneous pancreatic tumor models of nude mice were established, and therapeutic capabilities were tested.

Results: HMGB1 was detected in the supernatant of pancreatic cancer cells after radiotherapy. The results of CFSE showed that exogenous HMGB1 promotes the proliferation and metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells. The western blot results showed activation of p-GSK 3β and up-regulation of N-CA, Bcl-2, and Ki67 in response to HMGB1 stimulation, while E-CA expression was down-regulated in pancreatic cancer cells in response to HMGB1 stimulation. In vivo, ethyl pyruvate (EP, HMGB1 inhibitor) inhibits the growth of tumors and HMGB1 promotes the proliferation of tumors after radiation.

Conclusion: Radiotherapy induces HMGB1 release into the extracellular space. Exogenous HMGB1 promotes the proliferation and metastasis of PANC-1 cells and SW1990 cells by activation of p-GSK 3β which is mediated by Wnt pathway.

Toll-like receptors and toll-like receptor-targeted immunotherapy against glioma

Glioma represents a fast proliferating and highly invasive brain tumor which is resistant to current therapies and invariably recurs. Despite some advancements in anti-glioma therapies, patients’ prognosis remains poor. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) act as the first line of defense in the immune system being the detectors of those associated with bacteria, viruses, and danger signals. In the glioma microenvironment, TLRs are expressed on both immune and tumor cells, playing dual roles eliciting antitumoral (innate and adaptive immunity) and protumoral (cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and glioma stem cell maintenance) responses. Up to date, several TLR-targeting therapies have been developed aiming at glioma bulk and stem cells, infiltrating immune cells, the immune checkpoint axis, among others. While some TLR agonists exhibited survival benefit in clinical trials, it attracts more attention when they are involved in combinatorial treatment with radiation, chemotherapy, immune vaccination, and immune checkpoint inhibition in glioma treatment. TLR agonists can be used as immune modulators to enhance the efficacy of other treatment, to avoid dose accumulation, and what brings more interests is that they can potentiate immune checkpoint delayed resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade by upregulating PD-1/PD-L1 overexpression, thus unleash powerful antitumor responses when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Herein, we focus on recent developments and clinical trials exploring TLR-based treatment to provide a picture of the relationship between TLR and glioma and their implications for immunotherapy.

Expression of Four Autophagy-Related Genes Accurately Predicts the Prognosis of Gastrointestinal Cancer in Asian Patients

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers are among the most fatal diseases in the world. Numerous studies have demonstrated the relationship between autophagy and development of gastrointestinal cancers. However, whether autophagy-related genes can predict prognosis of GI cancers in individuals of Asian ancestry has not been defined. This study, evaluated the prognostic value of autophagy-related genes in gastrointestinal cancer. Expression profile of autophagy-related genes for 296 gastrointestinal cancer patients of Asian ancestry was downloaded from the TCGA database (TCGA-LIHC, TCGA-STAD, TCGA-ESCA, TCGA-PAAD, TCGA-COAD, TCGA-CHOL, and TCGA-READ). The prognostic value of the autophagy-related genes was evaluated using univariate Cox, LASSO, and multivariate Cox regression analyses. The risk score of the autophagy-related gene signature was calculated to assess its predictive prognostic value for GI cancers. Forty-seven differentially expressed autophagy-related genes, in Asian patients with gastrointestinal cancers, were identified. Of the 47 genes, 4 were associated with prognosis of GI cancer (SQSTM1, BIRC5, NRG3, and CXCR4). A prognostic model for GI cancer, based on the expression of the above 4 genes in the training set, showed that cancer patients were stratified into high-risk and low-risk groups (P < 0.05). The utility of the model for overall survival (OS) of GI cancer patients was consistent across the entire set, training set, and test set (entire set: P = 4.568 × 10⁻⁴; train set: P = 5.718 × 10⁻³; test set: P = 3.516 × 10⁻²). The sensitivity and specificity of the ROC curve of the above prognostic model in predicting the 5-year prognosis of GI cancer was satisfactory (entire set: 0.728; train set: 0.727; test set: 0.733). Analysis of clinical samples validated the overexpression of the 4 genes (SQSTM1, BIRC5, NRG3, and CXCR4) in tumor tissues relative to paired normal tissues, consistent with bioinformatic findings. Expression of the 4 autophagy-related genes (SQSTM1, BIRC5, NRG3, and CXCR4) can accurately predict the prognosis of gastrointestinal tumors in Asian patients.

A Key Pathway to Cancer Resilience: The Role of Autophagy in Glioblastomas

There are no effective strategies for the successful treatment of glioblastomas (GBM). Current therapeutic modalities effectively target bulk tumor cells but leave behind marginal GBM cells that escape from the surgical margins and radiotherapy field, exhibiting high migratory phenotype and resistance to all available anti-glioma therapies. Drug resistance is mostly driven by tumor cell plasticity: a concept associated with reactivating transcriptional programs in response to adverse and dynamic conditions from the tumor microenvironment. Autophagy, or "self-eating", pathway is an emerging target for cancer therapy and has been regarded as one of the key drivers of cell plasticity in response to energy demanding stress conditions. Many studies shed light on the importance of autophagy as an adaptive mechanism, protecting GBM cells from unfavorable conditions, while others recognize that autophagy can kill those cells by triggering a non-apoptotic cell death program, called 'autophagy cell death' (ACD). In this review, we carefully analyzed literature data and conclude that there is no clear evidence indicating the presence of ACD under pathophysiological settings in GBM disease. It seems to be exclusively induced by excessive (supra-physiological) stress signals, mostly from in vitro cell culture studies. Instead, pre-clinical and clinical data indicate that autophagy is an emblematic example of the 'dark-side' of a rescue pathway that contributes profoundly to a pro-tumoral adaptive response. From a standpoint of treating the real human disease, only combinatorial therapy targeting autophagy with cytotoxic drugs in the adjuvant setting for GBM patients, associated with the development of less toxic and more specific autophagy inhibitors, may inhibit adaptive response and enhance the sensibility of glioma cells to conventional therapies.

The Sonic Hedgehog signaling pathway regulates autophagy and migration in ovarian cancer

Background

The Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway plays an important role in various types of human cancers including ovarian cancer; however, its function and underlying mechanism in ovarian cancer are still not entirely understood.

Methods

We detected the expressions of SHH and SQSTM1 in borderline ovarian tumor tissues, epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) tissues and benign ovarian tumor tissues. Cyclopamine (Cyp, a well‐known inhibitor of SHH signaling pathway) and chloroquine (CQ, the pharmaceutical inhibitor of autophagy) were used in vivo and in vitro (autophagic flux, CCK‐8 assay, wound healing assay, transwell assay, tumor xenograft model). The mechanism of action was explored through Quantitative RT‐PCR and Western Blot.

Results

We found up‐regulation of SHH and accumulation of SQSTM1/P62 in epithelial ovarian cancer. Cyp induced autophagy through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Moreover, low‐dose Cyp and chloroquine (CQ) significantly promoted the migratory ability of SKOV3 cells.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that inhibition of the SHH pathway and autophagy may be a potential and effective therapy for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Long non-coding DANCR targets miR-185-5p to upregulate LIM and SH3 protein 1 promoting prostate cancer via the FAK/PI3K/AKT/GSK3β/snail pathway

BACKGROUND

Long non-coding RNA differentiation antagonizing non-protein coding RNA (DANCR) acts as an oncogene in different cancers, although its roles in prostate cancer are not fully reported. We aimed to explore its mechanism in facilitating the malignancy of prostate cancer.

METHODS

The expression of DANCR, microRNA (miR)-185-5p and LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) in 40 pairs of prostate cancer tissues and normal tissues, five prostate cancer cell lines and one epithelial cell line was assessed by a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blotting and immunohistochemistry, respectively. In transfected PC3 and C4-2 cells, cell proliferation, migration, invasion, cell cycle distribution and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) protein expression were tested via cell counting kit-8, wound healing, transwell, flow cytometry and western blot assays, respectively. The interactions between DANCR, miR-185-5p and LASP1 were verified by a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Rescue experiments were conducted to determine the roles of DANCR on the malignant properties of PC3 and C4-2 cells. The involvement of the signaling pathway was examined using a p-FAK inhibitor.

RESULTS

DANCR and LASP1 expression was enhanced, whereas miR-185-5p expression was diminished in prostate cancer tissues and cell lines. Knockdown of DANCR suppressed cell proliferation, migration, invasion, G1-S transition and expression of EMT proteins of the transfected PC3 and C4-2 cells. DANCR sponged miR-185-5p to upregulate LASP1 expression. DANCR-miR-185-5p-LASP1 axis activates the FAK/PI3K/AKT/GSK3β/Snail pathway to promote the malignant properties of PC3 and C4-2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that DANCR exerts oncogenic roles in prostate cancer via the miR-185-5p/LASP1 axis activating the FAK/PI3K/AKT/GSK3β/Snail pathway. It can be a potential biomarker in the diagnosis and monitoring of prostate cancer.

Overexpression of FBXO17 Promotes the Proliferation, Migration and Invasion of Glioma Cells Through the Akt/GSK-3β/Snail Pathway

FBXO17 is a newly studied F-box protein associated with high-grade glioma. However, its exact role in glioma remains unclear. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the role of FBXO17 in glioma both in vitro and in vivo and explore the underlying mechanism. Our results showed that FBXO17 mRNA and protein levels were upregulated in glioma cells including U87, U251, SHG44, and U-118-MG cells as compared to the HA1800 cells. Downregulation of FBXO17 significantly suppressed the cellular behaviors of glioma cells including cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. In addition, FBXO17 knockdown induced E-cadherin expression and inhibited N-cadherin and vimentin expression at mRNA and protein levels in glioma cells. In contrast, overexpression of FBXO17 promoted cell proliferation, migration, invasion and EMT process. Furthermore, FBXO17 regulated the Akt/GSK-3β/snail signaling pathway in glioma cells with significant changes in the expression levels of p-Akt, p-GSK-3β and snail. Additionally, inhibition of Akt by LY294002 reversed the effects of FBXO17 overexpression on cellular behaviors of glioma cells. Finally, in vivo mouse xenograft assay proved that downregulation of FBXO17 suppresses the tumorigenesis of glioma. In conclusion, these findings demonstrated that FBXO17 acted as a promotor of glioma development via modulating Akt/GSK-3β/snail signaling pathway.

Canidin-3-glucoside prevents nano-plastics induced toxicity via activating autophagy and promoting discharge

Increasing attention has been brought to microplastics pollution recently, while emerging evidences indicate that nano-plastics degraded from microplastics are more of research significance owing to stronger toxicity. However, there is little study focused on the prevention of nano-plastics induced toxicity until now. Canidin-3-glucoside (C3G), a natural anthocyanin proved to possess multiple functions like antioxidant and intestinal tissue protection. Thus, we proposed whether C3G could act as a molecular weapon against nano-plastics induced toxicity. In Caco2 cell and Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) models, we found that polystyrene (PS) nano-plastics exposure resulted in physiological toxicity and oxidative damage, which could be restored by C3G. More significantly in Caco2 cells, we observed that autophagy was activated via Sirt1-Foxo1 signaling pathway to attenuate PS induced toxicity after C3G intervention and further verified by adding autophagy inhibitor 3-Methyladenine (3-MA). Meanwhile, PS co-localization with lysosomes was observed, indicating the encapsulation and degradation of PS. In C. elegans, by detecting LGG-1/LC3 expression in GFP-targeted LGG-1 report gene (LGG-1:GFP) labeled transgenic DA2123 strain, the co-localization of LGG-1:GFP with PS was found as well, means that autophagy is involved in C3G's beneficial effects. Furthermore, we were surprised to find that C3G could promote the discharge of PS from N2 nematodes, which reduces PS toxicity more directly.

Eriodictyol inhibits glioblastoma migration and invasion by reversing EMT via downregulation of the P38 MAPK/GSK-3β/ZEB1 pathway

Eriodictyol (ERD) is a natural flavonoid that exists in many vegetables and fruits, especially citrus fruits. It has been proven to have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Our previous study showed that eriodictyol could inhibit the proliferation and induce the apoptosis of glioblastoma cells by downregulating the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB pathway and restraining its migration and invasion. However, the mechanism by which eriodictyol prevents glioblastoma metastasis is still unknown. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a key process for many cancer metastases; it also confers locomotivity to tumor cells, including glioblastoma. In this study, we found that eriodictyol can suppress the migration and invasion of glioblastoma A172 and U87 MG cell lines by suppressing the EMT markers - N-cadherin and E-cadherin through Wound healing and Transwell assays, Western blot, RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry. Further research revealed that the mechanism could be connected with downregulation of the P38 MAPK/GSK-3β/ZEB1 signaling pathway. These findings can provide a new idea for the treatment of glioblastoma.

c-MYC-directed NRF2 drives malignant progression of head and neck cancer via glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and transketolase activation

Rationale: NRF2, a redox sensitive transcription factor, is up-regulated in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), however, the associated impact and regulatory mechanisms remain unclear.

Methods: The protein expression of NRF2 in HNSCC specimens was examined by IHC. The regulatory effect of c-MYC on NRF2 was validated by ChIP-qPCR, RT-qPCR and western blot. The impacts of NRF2 on malignant progression of HNSCC were determined through genetic manipulation and pharmacological inhibition in vitro and in vivo. The gene-set enrichment analysis (GSEA) on expression data of cDNA microarray combined with ChIP-qPCR, RT-qPCR, western blot, transwell migration/ invasion, cell proliferation and soft agar colony formation assays were used to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of NRF2.

Results: NRF2 expression is positively correlated with malignant features of HNSCC. In addition, carcinogens, such as nicotine and arecoline, trigger c-MYC-directed NRF2 activation in HNSCC cells. NRF2 reprograms a wide range of cancer metabolic pathways and the most notable is the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). Furthermore, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and transketolase (TKT) are critical downstream effectors of NRF2 that drive malignant progression of HNSCC; the coherently expressed signature NRF2/G6PD/TKT gene set is a potential prognostic biomarker for prediction of patient overall survival. Notably, G6PD- and TKT-regulated nucleotide biosynthesis is more important than redox regulation in determining malignant progression of HNSCC.

Conclusions: Carcinogens trigger c-MYC-directed NRF2 activation. Over-activation of NRF2 promotes malignant progression of HNSCC through reprogramming G6PD- and TKT-mediated nucleotide biosynthesis. Targeting NRF2-directed cellular metabolism is an effective strategy for development of novel treatments for head and neck cancer.

Extracellular HMGB1 promotes CD44 expression in hepatocellular carcinoma via regulating miR-21

As a member of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), extracellular high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) plays a critical role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression. Cluster differentiation 44 (CD44) has been demonstrated to participate in HCC progression. However, the relationship between extracellular HMGB1 and CD44 remains unclear. In this study, our results indicated that extracellular HMGB1 promoted the invasion, sphere formation and EMT process of HCC by increasing CD44 expression, which was dependent on miR-21. Moreover, miR-21 upregulated CD44 expression via activating OCT4/TGF-β1 signaling. Finally, we demonstrated the activation of Rage/JNK signaling caused by extracellular HMGB1 was responsible for miR-21 overexpression. Together, these findings reveal an important role of extracellular HMGB1 in HCC progression through upregulating miR-21/CD44.

BDKRB2 is a novel EMT-related biomarker and predicts poor survival in glioma

Bradykinin receptor B2 (BDKRB2) has been reported as an oncogene in several malignancies. In glioma, the role of BDKRB2 remains unknown. This study aimed at investigating its clinical significance and biological function in glioma at the transcriptional level. We selected 301 glioma patients with microarray data from CGGA database and 697 with RNAseq data from TCGA database. Transcriptome and clinical data of 998 samples were analyzed. Statistical analysis and figure generating were performed with R language. BDKRB2 expression showed a positive correlation with the WHO grade of glioma. BDKRB2 was increased in IDH wildtype and mesenchymal subtype of glioma. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that BDKRB2 was profoundly associated with extracellular matrix organization in glioma. GSEA analysis revealed that BDKRB2 was particularly correlated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). GSVA analysis showed that BDKRB2 was significantly paralleled with several EMT signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT, hypoxia, and TGF-β. Moreover, BDKRB2 expression was significantly correlated with key biomarkers of EMT, especially with N-cadherin, snail, slug, vimentin, TWIST1, and TWIST2. Finally, higher BDKRB2 indicated significantly shorter survival for glioma patients. In conclusion, BDKRB2 was associated with more aggressive phenotypes of gliomas. Furthermore, BDKRB2 was involved in the EMT process and could serve as an independent prognosticator in glioma.

Calumenin contributes to epithelial-mesenchymal transition and predicts poor survival in glioma

Background

Calumenin (CALU) has been reported to be associated with invasiveness and metastasis in some malignancies. However, in glioma, the role of CALU remains unclear.

Methods

Clinical and transcriptome data of 998 glioma patients, including 301 from CGGA and 697 from TCGA dataset, were included. R language was used to perform statistical analyses.

Results

CALU expression was significantly upregulated in more malignant gliomas, including higher grade, IDH wildtype, mesenchymal, and classical subtype. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that CALU-correlated genes were mainly enriched in cell/biological adhesion, response to wounding, and extracellular matrix/structure organization, all of which were strongly correlated with the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype. GSEA further validated the profound involvement of CALU in EMT. Subsequent GSVA suggested that CALU was particularly correlated with three EMT signaling pathways, including TGFβ, PI3K/AKT, and hypoxia pathway. Furthermore, CALU played synergistically with EMT key markers, including N-cadherin, vimentin, snail, slug, and TWIST1. Survival and Cox regression analysis showed that higher CALU predicted worse survival, and the prognostic value was independent of WHO grade and age.

Conclusions

CALU was correlated with more malignant phenotypes in glioma. Moreover, CALU seemed to serve as a pro-EMT molecular target and could contribute to predict prognosis independently in glioma.

Involvement of HMGB1 in vemurafenib resistance in thyroid cancer cells harboring BRAF (V600E) mutation by regulating excessive autophagy

PURPOSE

Thyroid carcinoma is the most frequent endocrine malignancy with high occurrence of BRAFV600E mutations. Though targeted therapy by vemurafenib, a specific inhibitor for BRAFV600E, has achieved great advance in therapeutic landscape, resistance occurrence is still a clinical challenge. Here, we sought to elucidate the function of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in vemurafenib resistance in thyroid cancer harboring BRAF mutation.

METHODS

The expression of HMGB1 in BRAF-mutant BCPAP and BRAF-wild CAL-62 cells were determined by qRT-PCR and western. Then, BCPAP cells were transfected with recombinant HMGB1 plasmids, and vemurafenib-resistant BCPAP-R cells were treated with si-HMGB1. The efficacy of HMGB1 on vemurafenib resistance was evaluated by detecting cell viability, apoptosis, and caspase-3 activity. In addition, the involvement of autophagy pathway was investigated.

RESULTS

Lower expression of HMGB1 was observed in BRAF-mutant BCPAP cells that had high sensitivity to vemurafenib. Overexpression of HMGB1 attenuated BCPAP cell sensitivity to vemurafenib by increasing cell viability and decreasing cell apoptosis and caspase-3 activity. Intriguingly, higher expression of HMGB1 was confirmed in vemurafenib-resistant BCPAP-R cells. Moreover, knockdown of HMGB1 sensitized BCPAP-R cells to vemurafenib resistance. Mechanistically, vemurafenib exposure induced autophagy by enhancing LC3II, Beclin-1 expression, and reducing autophagy substrate p62 expression. Importantly, targeting HMGB1 suppressed vemurafenib-induced autophagy. Blocking autophagy pathway with its inhibitor 3-MA offset BCPAP-R cell resistance to vemurafenib.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight that HMGB1-mediated autophagy may account for vemurafenib resistance in thyroid cancer harboring BRAF mutation, implying a promising approach to overcome vemurafenib resistance in vemurafenib-mutant thyroid carcinomas.

C-Myc Signaling Pathway in Treatment and Prevention of Brain Tumors

Brain tumors are responsible for high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Several factors such as the presence of blood-brain barrier (BBB), sensitive location in the brain, and unique biological features challenge the treatment of brain tumors. The conventional drugs are no longer effective in the treatment of brain tumors, and scientists are trying to find novel therapeutics for brain tumors. In this way, identification of molecular pathways can facilitate finding an effective treatment. c-Myc is an oncogene signaling pathway capable of regulation of biological processes such as apoptotic cell death, proliferation, survival, differentiation, and so on. These pleiotropic effects of c-Myc have resulted in much fascination with its role in different cancers, particularly brain tumors. In the present review, we aim to demonstrate the upstream and down-stream mediators of c-Myc in brain tumors such as glioma, glioblastoma, astrocytoma, and medulloblastoma. The capacity of c-Myc as a prognostic factor in brain tumors will be investigated. Our goal is to define an axis in which the c-Myc signaling pathway plays a crucial role and to provide direction for therapeutic targeting in these signaling networks in brain tumors.

IKBIP is a novel EMT-related biomarker and predicts poor survival in glioma

Background

In cancer, kappa B-interacting protein (IKBIP) has rarely been reported. This study aimed at investigating its expression pattern and biological function in brain glioma at the transcriptional level.

Methods

We selected 301 glioma patients with microarray data from CGGA database and 697 glioma patients with RNAseq data from TCGA database. Transcriptional data and clinical data of 998 samples were analyzed. Statistical analysis and figure generating were performed with R language.

Results

We found that IKBIP expression showed positive correlation with WHO grade of glioma. IKBIP was increased in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) wild type and mesenchymal molecular subtype of glioma. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that IKBIP was profoundly associated with extracellular matrix organization, cell–substrate adhesion and response to wounding in both pan-glioma and glioblastoma. Subsequent gene set enrichment analysis revealed that IKBIP was particularly correlated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). To further elucidate the relationship between IKBIP and EMT, we performed gene set variation analysis to screen the EMT-related signaling pathways and found that IKBIP expression was significantly associated with PI3K/AKT, hypoxia and TGF-β pathway. Moreover, IKBIP expression was found to be synergistic with key biomarkers of EMT, especially with N-cadherin, vimentin, snail, slug and TWIST1. Finally, higher IKBIP indicated significantly shorter survival for glioma patients.

Conclusions

IKBIP was associated with more aggressive phenotypes of gliomas. Furthermore, IKBIP was significantly involved in EMT and could serve as an independent prognosticator in glioma.

MiR-4310 induced by SP1 targets PTEN to promote glioma progression

Background

miRNAs have been reported to be involved in multiple biological processes of gliomas. Here, we aimed to analyze miR-4310 and its correlation genes involved in the progression of human glioma.

Methods

miR-4310 expression levels were examined in glioma and non-tumor brain (NB) tissues. The molecular mechanisms of miR-4310 expression and its effects on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were explored using 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide, Transwell chamber, Boyden chamber, and western blot analyses, as well as its effect on tumorigenesis was explored in vivo in nude mice. The relationships between miR-4310, SP1, phosphatase, and tensin homolog (PTEN) were explored using chromatin immunoprecipitation, agarose gel electrophoresis, electrophoresis mobility shift, and dual-luciferase reporter gene assays.

Results

miR-4310 expression was upregulated in glioma tissues compared to that in NB tissues. Overexpressed miR-4310 promoted glioma cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, as well as tumorigenesis in vivo. The inhibition of miR-4310 expression was sufficient to reverse these results. Mechanistic analyses revealed that miR-4310 promoted glioma progression through the PI3K/AKT pathway by targeting PTEN. Additionally, SP1 induced the expression of miR-4310 by binding to its promoter region.

Conclusion

miR-4310 promotes the progression of glioma by targeting PTEN and activating the PI3K/AKT pathway; meanwhile, the expression of miR-4310 was induced by SP1.

Upregulation of HOTAIRM1 increases migration and invasion by glioblastoma cells

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) promote invasion and migration by glioblastoma (GBM) cells. In this study, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to detect expression levels of the lncRNA HOTAIRM1 in GBM tissue samples and cells. The function of HOTAIRM1 was examined using wound healing assays, transwell assays, and in vivo experiments after GBM cells were transfected with either sh-ctrl or sh-HOTAIRM1. Luciferase reporter assays and RIP assays were performed to determine the interactions between HOTAIRM1 and miR-153-5p and between miR-153-5p and SNAI2. We also used luciferase reporter assays and ChIP assays to assess the transcriptional regulation of HOTAIRM1 by SNAI2 and CDH1. HOTAIRM1 was significantly overexpressed in GBM tissues and cells. HOTAIRM1 knockdown significantly weakened the migration and invasion by GBM cells. HOTAIRM1 was found to sponge miR-153-5p, and SNAI2 is a direct target of miR-153-5p. In addition, SNAI2 was shown to force HOTAIRM1 expression through directly promoting transcription and suppressing the negative regulation of CDH1 on transcription. Our results indicate a positive feedback loop between HOTAIRM1 and SNAI2, and suggest that the lncRNA HOTAIRM1 is a potential biomarker and therapeutic target in GBM.

Melatonin prevents LPS-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in human alveolar epithelial cells via the GSK-3β/Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress plays a critical role in pulmonary fibrosis after acute lung injury (ALI), and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) events are involved in this process. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of melatonin, a natural antioxidant, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced EMT in human alveolar epithelial cells.

METHODS

Human type II alveolar epithelial cell-derived A549 cells were incubated with LPS and melatonin alone or in combination for up to 24 h. The morphological changes of the treated cells were evaluated as well as indexes of oxidative stress. EMT-related proteins and the Nrf2 signaling pathway were detected by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence staining, respectively. To further investigate the underlying mechanisms, the effects of melatonin on cells transfected Nrf2 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and the PI3K / GSK-3β signaling pathway were evaluated.

RESULTS

Treatment with melatonin upregulated Nrf2 expression, inhibited LPS-induced cell morphological change, reversed the expressions of EMT-related proteins, and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in A549 cells, as well as the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and anti-oxidative enzymes. Yet, the effects of melatonin were almost completely abolished in cells transfected Nrf2 shRNA. Furthermore, the data demonstrated that melatonin could activate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, resulting in phosphorylation of GSK-3β (Ser9) and upregulation of the Nrf2 protein in A549 cells, which ultimately attenuated LPS-induced EMT.

CONCLUSION

The present study is the first to demonstrate that melatonin can protect human alveolar epithelial cells against oxidative stress by effectively inhibiting LPS-induced EMT, which was mostly dependent on upregulation of the Nrf2 pathway via the PI3K/GSK-3β axis. Further studies are warranted to investigate the role of melatonin for the treatment of oxidative stress-associated diseases, as well as pulmonary fibrosis after ALI.

Targeted scavenging of extracellular ROS relieves suppressive immunogenic cell death

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) and tumour-infiltrating T lymphocytes are severely weakened by elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the tumour microenvironment. It is therefore of critical importance to modulate the level of extracellular ROS for the reversal of immunosuppressive environment. Here, we present a tumour extracellular matrix (ECM) targeting ROS nanoscavenger masked by pH sensitive covalently crosslinked polyethylene glycol. The nanoscavenger anchors on the ECM to sweep away the ROS from tumour microenvironment to relieve the immunosuppressive ICD elicited by specific chemotherapy and prolong the survival of T cells for personalized cancer immunotherapy. In a breast cancer model, elimination of the ROS in tumour microenvironment elicited antitumour immunity and increased infiltration of T lymphocytes, resulting in highly potent antitumour effect. The study highlights a strategy to enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy by scavenging extracellular ROS using advanced nanomaterials.

Reactive oxygen species in the tumour microenvironment can have an immunosuppressive effect. Here, the authors devise a nanoparticle that anchors to the extracellular matrix within tumours and scavenges reactive oxygen species, resulting in an enhanced immune response within the tumour.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3β: a promising candidate in the fight against fibrosis

Fibrosis exists in almost all organs/tissues of the human body, plays an important role in the occurrence and development of diseases and is also a hallmark of the aging process. However, there is no effective prevention or therapeutic method for fibrogenesis. As a serine/threonine (Ser/Thr)-protein kinase, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) is a vital signaling mediator that participates in a variety of biological events and can inhibit extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, thereby exerting its protective role against the fibrosis of various organs/tissues, including the heart, lung, liver, and kidney. Moreover, we further present the upstream regulators and downstream effectors of the GSK-3β pathway during fibrosis and comprehensively summarize the roles of GSK-3β in the regulation of fibrosis and provide several potential targets for research. Collectively, the information reviewed here highlights recent advances vital for experimental research and clinical development, illuminating the possibility of GSK-3β as a novel therapeutic target for the management of tissue fibrosis in the future.