Bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in the immunosuppressed host

Detection of Bronchiolitis Obliterans Syndrome after Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline

Background: Many children undergo allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for the treatment of malignant and nonmalignant conditions. Unfortunately, pulmonary complications occur frequently post-HSCT, with bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) being the most common noninfectious pulmonary complication. Current international guidelines contain conflicting recommendations regarding post-HSCT surveillance for BOS, and a recent NIH workshop highlighted the need for a standardized approach to post-HSCT monitoring. As such, this guideline provides an evidence-based approach to detection of post-HSCT BOS in children. Methods: A multinational, multidisciplinary panel of experts identified six questions regarding surveillance for, and evaluation of, post-HSCT BOS in children. A systematic review of the literature was undertaken to answer each question. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach was used to rate the quality of evidence and the strength of recommendations. Results: The panel members considered the strength of each recommendation and evaluated the benefits and risks of applying the intervention. In formulating the recommendations, the panel considered patient and caregiver values, the cost of care, and feasibility. Recommendations addressing the role of screening pulmonary function testing and diagnostic tests in children with suspected post-HSCT BOS were made. Following a Delphi process, new diagnostic criteria for pediatric post-HSCT BOS were also proposed. Conclusions: This document provides an evidence-based approach to the detection of post-HSCT BOS in children while also highlighting considerations for the implementation of each recommendation. Further, the document describes important areas for future research.

Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage in Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation

Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH) is a morbid syndrome that occurs after autologous and allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation in children and adults. DAH manifests most often in the first few weeks following transplantation. It presents with pneumonia-like symptoms and acute respiratory failure, often requiring high levels of oxygen supplementation or mechanical ventilatory support. Hemoptysis is variably present. Chest radiographs typically feature widespread alveolar filling, sometimes with peripheral sparing and pleural effusions. The diagnosis is suspected when serial bronchoalveolar lavages return increasingly bloody fluid. DAH is differentiated from infectious causes of alveolar hemorrhage when extensive microbiological testing reveals no pulmonary pathogens. The cause is poorly understood, though preclinical and clinical studies implicate pretransplant conditioning regimens, particularly those using high doses of total-body-irradiation, acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), medications used to prevent GVHD, and other factors. Treatment consists of supportive care, systemic corticosteroids, platelet transfusions, and sometimes includes antifibrinolytic drugs and topical procoagulant factors. Therapeutic blockade of tumor necrosis factor-α showed promise in observational studies, but its benefit for DAH remains uncertain after small clinical trials. Even with these treatments, mortality from progression and relapse is high. Future investigational therapies could target the vascular endothelial cell biology theorized to contribute to alveolar bleeding and pathways that contribute to susceptibility, inflammation, cellular resilience, and tissue repair. This review will help clinicians navigate through the limited evidence to diagnose and treat DAH, counsel patients and families, and plan for future research.

Secondary fungal infections in SARS-CoV-2 patients: pathological whereabouts, cautionary measures, and steadfast treatments

The earliest documented COVID-19 case caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus occurred in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Since then, several SARS-CoV-2 mutants have rapidly disseminated as exemplified by the community spread of the recent omicron variant. The disease already attained a pandemic status with ever-dwindling mortality even after two and half years of identification and considerable vaccination. Aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and mucormycosis are the prominent fungal infections experienced by the majority of SARS-CoV-2 high-risk patients. In its entirety, COVID-19's nexus with these fungal infections may worsen the intricacies in the already beleaguered high-risk patients, making this a topic of substantial clinical concern. Thus, thorough knowledge of the subject is necessary. This article focuses on the concomitant fungal infection(s) in COVID-19 patients, taking into account their underlying causes, the screening methods, manifested drug resistance, and long-term effects. The information and knowledge shared herein could be crucial for the management of critically ill, aged, and immunocompromised SARS-CoV-2 patients who have had secondary fungal infections (SFIs).

Detection of cytomegalovirus in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from immunocompromised patients with pneumonitis by viral culture and DNA quantification

PURPOSE

To compare the detection of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid by viral culture and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and to establish a viral load threshold that can identify cases of HCMV replication indicative of pneumonitis. There is currently no universal viral load cut-off to differentiate between patients with and without pneumonitis, and the interpretation of qPCR results is challenging.

METHODS

176 consecutive BAL samples from immunosuppressed hosts with signs and/or symptoms of respiratory infection were prospectively studied by viral culture and qPCR.

RESULTS

Concordant results were obtained in 81.25% of the BAL samples. The rest were discordant, as only 34% of the qPCR-positive BAL samples were positive by culture. The median HCMV load was significantly higher in culture-positive than in culture-negative BAL samples (5,038 vs 178 IU/mL). Using a cut-off value of 1,258 IU/mL of HCMV in BAL, pneumonia was diagnosed with a sensitivity of 76%, a specificity of 100%, a VPP of 100% and VPN of 98%, and HCMV was isolated in 100% of the BAL cultures.

CONCLUSION

We found that a qPCR-negative was a quick and reliable way of ruling out HCMV pneumonitis, but a positive result did not always indicate clinically significant replication in the lung. However, an HCMV load in BAL fluid of ≥1,258 IU/mL was always associated with disease, whereas <200 IU/mL rarely so.

Quantitative PCR for the Diagnosis of HCMV Pneumonia in HSCT Recipients and Other Immunocompromised Hosts

Pneumonia is among the most serious manifestations of HCMV infection, with high morbidity and mortality. Probable pneumonia is defined as the detection of HCMV in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) by viral isolation or DNA quantification (qPCR) combined with symptoms and/or signs of respiratory infection. However, currently, there is no reproducible and well-defined viral load (VL) from BAL that can reliably differentiate patients with pneumonia from the much more common detection of viral DNA in seropositive patients without true HCMV pneumonia. Several studies have been published with the aim of establishing an optimal VL for differentiating pneumonia from viral lung shedding. The aim of this review is to collect and analyze the methodology and the conclusions obtained in studies whose objectives included the correlation between HCMV VL in BAL and/or the plasma and the occurrence of HCMV pneumonia. For this purpose, a total of 14 articles have been included. There are some conclusions on which they all agree. PCR techniques were more sensitive and had a higher NPV than culture techniques but were less specific and had a low PPV. The mean HCMV loads in both BAL and the plasma were significantly higher in patients with pneumonitis than in those without. The HCMV load in patients with pneumonitis was higher in BAL than in the plasma, making qPCR in BAL a better predictor of HCMV pneumonitis than in the plasma. Nevertheless, this review highlights the difficulty of establishing a universal VL value, both in BAL and in the blood, to differentiate patients with HCMV pneumonia from those without. To complete the information available in these studies, prospective multicentre studies would be required. Methodologically, a large number of patients with HCMV pneumonitis would have to be included, and a subclassification of the type of immunosuppression of each patient should be made in order to obtain an optimal VL threshold in different host groups.

Thrombocytopenic patients with hematological malignancy who underwent fiberoptic bronchoscopy are they really under a significant hemorrhagic risk?

Background

Fiberoptic bronchoscopy (FOB) is a very important procedure in hematology clinics. Clinicians often worry about thrombocytopenia before performing FOB because hemorrhagic complications may occur during and after FOB. We have planned a retrospective study about hemorrhagic complications in thrombocytopenic patients who underwent FOB and treated for hematological malignancy. In this study, we have analyzed hemorrhagic complications, which are related to thrombocytopenia, in 114 adult patients who have hematologic malignancy and underwent FOB between January 1, 2005 and October 20, 2015. The platelet counts of all the patients were below 100 × 109/L.

Results

The complications related to FOB were observed in 4 (3.5%) out of 114 patient. Three out of 4 the complications were related to hemorrhage. One out of these 3 patients who occured hemorrhage was in “no bleeding group” according to BTS classification. The other 1 out of these 3 patients was in “mild bleeding” group. No bleeding was observed during FOB in the third patient. Hemoptysis was observed after FOB in the third patient, it was not required replacement and hemoptysis regressed spontaneously.

In this study, we categorized all the patients into three groups. The first group was comprised of 32 patients whose platelet counts were between 0 and 30 × 109/L. The second group was comprised of 47 patients whose platelets counts were between 30 and 50 × 109/L and lastly, the third group was comprised of 35 patients whose platelets counts were between 50 and 100 × 109/L. When we compared the groups to each other, there was no significant difference between these three groups in regards to occurrence of hemorrhagic complications. We observed that there was no significant relationship between thrombocytopenia level and risk of hemorrhagic complications in thrombocytopenic patients who underwent FOB.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study demonstrated that FOB is safe procedures in thrombocytopenic patients if it is performed in multidisciplinary centers by experienced pulmonologists.

Clinical Value of Bronchoscopy in Acute Respiratory Failure

Bronchoscopy may be considered the “added value” in the diagnostic and therapeutic pathway of different clinical scenarios occurring in acute respiratory critically ill patients. Rigid bronchoscopy is mainly employed in emergent clinical situations due to central airways obstruction, haemoptysis, and inhaled foreign body. Flexible bronchoscopy (FBO) has larger fields of acute applications. In intensive care settings, FBO is useful to facilitate intubation in difficult airways, guide percutaneous dilatational tracheostomy, and mucous plugs causing lobar/lung atelectasis. FBO plays a central diagnostic role in acute respiratory failure caused by intra-thoracic tumors, interstitial lung diseases, and suspected severe pneumonia. “Bronchoscopic” sampling has to be considered when “non-invasive” techniques are not diagnostic in suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia and in non-ventilated immunosuppressed patients. The combined use of either noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or High-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) with bronchoscopy is useful in different scenarios; the largest body of proven successful evidence has been found for NIV-supported diagnostic FBO in non-ventilated high risk patients to prevent and avoid intubation. The expected diagnostic/therapeutic goals of acute bronchoscopy should be balanced against the potential severe risks (i.e., cardio-pulmonary complications, bleeding, and pneumothorax). Expertise of the team is fundamental to achieve the best rate of success with the lowest rate of complications of diagnostic and therapeutic bronchoscopic procedures in acute clinical circumstances.

Incidence of Bleeding Complications With Flexible Bronchoscopy in Cancer Patients With Thrombocytopenia

BACKGROUND

Bronchoscopy is a safe procedure, but current guidelines recommend transfusion for platelets <20 K/μL. Studies of bronchoscopy in thrombocytopenia are limited.

OBJECTIVES

Our objective was to evaluate the incidence of bleeding with flexible bronchoscopy in those with thrombocytopenia especially those <20 K/μL.

METHOD

We performed a retrospective review of all flexible bronchoscopies between June 1, 2008 and December 31, 2010. Biopsies and therapeutic procedures were excluded. The χ, Fisher exact, and Rank-sum test were conducted to evaluate associations of clinically significant bleeding.

RESULTS

There were 1711 patients who underwent 2053 flexible bronchoscopies. Cancer diagnosis included hematologic (61.3%) and solid organ malignancy (34.9%). Half of the bronchoscopies had moderate to severe thrombocytopenia (<100 K/μL) with the following ranges: 14.7% with 50 to <100 K/μL, 20.6% with 20 to <50 K/μL, 10.6% with 10 to <20 K/μL, 4.1% with <10 K/μL. Platelet transfusion was given in 90.6% of those with platelets <10 K/μL and 55.5% of those with platelets 10 to <20 K/μL. The nasal route for bronchoscopy was used in 92.4%. Bleeding complication rate however was 1.1% (0.2% major) and not affected by platelets.

CONCLUSION

Bronchoscopy with lavage can be safely performed without platelet transfusion in those with platelets of ≥10 K/μL. In the absence of nasal bleeding, trauma, or deformity, the nasal route can be used for bronchoscopy.

Evaluation of the clinical utility of reflex GMS and AFB stains on BAL specimens from lung transplant patients

INTRODUCTION

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) has a useful role in the detection of infectious diseases. Grocott methenamine silver (GMS) and acid-fast bacilli (AFB) are ancillary stains that aid in the cytologic detection of fungal and mycobacterial organisms. However, the utility of these stains in conjunction with microbiological testing is unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BAL specimens from lung transplant patients between January 1, 2018, to December 31, 2018, were evaluated. Inclusion criteria included cases with both GMS and AFB stains and concurrent fungal and mycobacterial microbiology testing. The staining findings were correlated with concurrent microbiology findings, including cultures and immunofluorescent smears.

RESULTS

A total of 231 BAL specimens were identified. GMS stain was positive in 19.5% and AFB in 1.3%. Fungal microbiology was positive in 23.4% and mycobacterial microbiology in 6.1%. A total of 87.9% of cases had concordant findings between cytology stains and microbiology tests and 12.1% had discrepant findings. Notably of the discrepancies, 3.0% had positive GMS and negative fungal microbiology and 6.9% had positive fungal microbiology and negative GMS. No cases had positive AFB with negative mycobacterial microbiology whereas 4.8% had positive mycobacterial microbiology and negative AFB stain.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that staining for AFB on BAL material in lung transplant patients had limited benefit when concurrent microbiology was performed. GMS staining shows a small benefit. We recommend reflex testing for fungal organisms but not mycobacterial organisms in lung transplant patients.

Cancer Treatment-Related Lung Injury

Lung injury associated with cancer therapeutics is often the limiting factor that trumps otherwise successful cancer therapy. Thoracic radiation as well as cancer pharmacotherapeutics, including conventional chemotherapy, molecular targeted agents, and cancer immunotherapies, have been associated with a unique spectrum of histopathologic injury patterns that may involve the lung parenchyma, pleura, airways, and/or pulmonary vasculature. Injury patterns may be idiosyncratic, unpredictable, and highly variable from one agent class to the next. Variability in lung injury patterns within a specific therapeutic class of drugs also occurs, adding to the conundrum. Drug-induced toxicities to the thoracic cavity are infrequent, and early recognition of clinical clues portends a good outcome in most cases. Failure to recognize early clinical signs, however, may result in irreversible and potentially lethal consequences.

This chapter provides an overview of our current knowledge of thoracic complications associated with cancer pharmacotherapies. The review is not intended to be a treatise of all cancer agents that adversely affect the lungs, but rather a discussion of established risk factors and histopathologic patterns of lung injury associated with broad classes of cancer agents. Optimal management strategies, based on existing clinical experience, will also be discussed. Complications associated with thoracic radiation are also reviewed. It is hoped that these discussions will facilitate early recognition and management of treatment-related thoracic complications and, ultimately, better patient outcomes.

Pneumocystis jiroveci in solid organ transplantation: Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice

These updated guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Community of Practice of the American Society of Transplantation review the diagnosis, prevention, and management of Pneumocystis jiroveci fungal infection transplant recipients. Pneumonia (PJP) may develop via airborne transmission or reactivation of prior infection. Nosocomial clusters of infection have been described among transplant recipients. PJP should not occur during prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX). Without prophylaxis, PJP risk is greatest in the first 6 months after organ transplantation but may develop later. Risk factors include low lymphocyte counts, cytomegalovirus infection (CMV), hypogammaglobulinemia, treated graft rejection or corticosteroids, and advancing patient age (>65). Presentation typically includes fever, dyspnea with hypoxemia, and cough. Chest radiographic patterns generally reveal diffuse interstitial processes best seen by CT scans. Patients generally have PO₂  < 60 mm Hg, elevated serum lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), and elevated serum (1 → 3) β-d-glucan assay. Specific diagnosis uses respiratory specimens with direct immunofluorescent staining; invasive procedures may be required. Quantitative PCR is a useful adjunct to diagnosis. TMP-SMX is the drug of choice for therapy; drug allergy should be documented before resorting to alternative therapies. Adjunctive corticosteroids may be useful early. Routine PJP prophylaxis is recommended for at least 6-12 months post-transplant, preferably with TMP-SMX.

Bronchoalveolar carcinoma as an unsuspected cause for worsening shortness of breath in a patient with metastatic breast cancer

A 70-year-old woman with lung metastases from a breast cancer presented with worsening cough and dyspnoea. She recently had a pleurodesis for a malignant pleural effusion. Chest CT scans demonstrated various radiological changes leading to diagnostic challenges. Differential diagnoses included empyema, pleural disease progression, pulmonary oedema, pneumonitis, lymphangitis and atypical infections. She deteriorated despite a multimodality treatment strategy. Postmortem examination confirmed that lung changes were consistent with a bronchoalveolar carcinoma unrelated to the known metastatic breast cancer. The eventual knowledge of this diagnosis was reassuring to the treating medical team and a comfort to the relatives who witnessed the lack of response to standard treatment.

The Diagnostic Yield, Safety, and Impact of Flexible Bronchoscopy in Non-HIV Immunocompromised Critically Ill Patients in the Intensive Care Unit

Background

Flexible bronchoscopy (FB) and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) have major roles in the evaluation of parenchymal lung diseases in immunocompromised patients. Given the limited evidence, lack of standardized practice, and variable perception of procedural safety, uncertainty still exists on what constitutes the best approach in critically ill patients with immunocompromised state who present with pulmonary infiltrates in the era of prophylactic antimicrobials and the presence of new diagnostic tests.

Objective

To evaluate the diagnostic yield, safety and impact of FB and BAL on management decisions in immunocompromised critically ill patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU).

Methods

A prospective, observational study of 106 non-HIV immunocompromised patients admitted to the intensive care unit with pulmonary infiltrates who underwent FB with BAL.

Results

FB and BAL established the diagnosis in 38 (33%) of cases, and had a positive impact on management in 44 (38.3%) of cases. Escalation of ventilator support was not required in 94 (81.7%) of cases, while 18 (15.7%) required invasive and 3 (2.6%) required non-invasive positive pressure ventilation after the procedure. Three patients (2.6%) died within 24 h of bronchoscopy, and 46 patients (40%) died in ICU. Significant hypoxemia developed in 5% of cases.

Conclusion

FB can be safely performed in immunocompromised critically ill patients in the ICU. The yield can be improved when FB is done prior to initiation of empiric antimicrobials, within 24 h of admission to the ICU, and in patients with focal disease.

The utility and safety of flexible bronchoscopy in critically ill acute leukemia patients: a retrospective cohort study

PURPOSE

Flexible bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is commonly performed in immunocompromised patients. Nevertheless, it remains unclear whether bronchoscopy with BAL leads to changes in medical management or is associated with procedural complications among critically ill acute leukemia (AL) patients.

METHODS

We evaluated 71 AL patients who underwent diagnostic bronchoscopy with BAL in the intensive care unit (ICU) between 1 January 2007 and 31 December 2012. We recorded baseline characteristics, vital signs (before, during, and after the procedure), changes in medical management following the procedure, and procedural complications. Using a multivariable logistic regression model, we explored the relationship between patient characteristics and whether bronchoscopy changed management or caused complications. Patient characteristics included as predictors in the regression model were age, sex, immunosuppression status (those undergoing active chemotherapy), and the Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation II score.

RESULTS

The most common indication for ICU admission was respiratory failure (51 patients, 72%), followed by sepsis (14 patients, 20%). Overall, the results obtained from bronchoscopy with BAL were associated with a change in management in 32 patients (45%), most commonly a change in antimicrobial therapy as a result of an infectious pathogen being identified (17 patients, 24%). Complications were documented in nine patients (13%) and included post-procedural hypoxia (six patients, 8%), the need for intubation (one patient, 9% of non-intubated patients), and tracheal perforation (one patient, 1%). No clinically significant changes in patient vital signs were observed during or immediately following the procedure. Patient characteristics did not predict whether bronchoscopy was associated with changes in medical management or procedural complications in multivariable analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Flexible bronchoscopy with BAL is relatively safe and helps to guide medical management among patients with AL admitted to the ICU.

Alveolar Hemorrhage

Alveolar hemorrhage (AH) is a clinical syndrome with diverse etiologies both immune and nonimmune. The defining pathological feature of AH is the presence or absence of pulmonary capillaritis. The antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA) related vasculitis and systemic lupus erythematosus are the commonest causes of immune AH with pulmonary capillaritis, whereas Goodpasture's syndrome and idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis are common causes of immune AH without pulmonary capillaritis. The major nonimmune causes of AH are primarily drug induced, or due to hematological malignancy and disorders of coagulation. Clinical features of AH include: dyspnea, fever, hemotypsis, bilateral crackles and pallor. Hypoxemia and bilateral diffuse airspace disease on the chest radiograph with relative sparing of the bases and apices which most often clears within 48 hours after its onset further characterize this syndrome. The major clinical implications of this syndrome are its potential to cause respiratory failure in severe cases and its sequelae of pulmonary fibrosis with associated morbidity and disability. In addition, AH may be the initial manifestation of a systemic immune disorder which can be managed optimally if recognized early. The diagnosis of AH is confirmed by bronchoalveolar lavage by demonstrating a progressively bloody return on successive aliquots of instilled saline or hemosiderin laden macrophages in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The open lung biopsy remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of AH but is reserved for inapparent cases in whom corticosteroids and immunosuppressive therapy may be life saving. Serologic testing and examination of the urine sediment are useful adjuncts to the diagnosis. The treatment of AH is primarily supportive while an attempt is made to determine its etiology and initiate specific therapy. Glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide are the cornerstones of therapy in immune AH with adjunctive plasmapheresis in life-threatening cases.

A Comparison of Techniques for Optimal Performance of Bronchoalveolar Lavage

BACKGROUND

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a commonly used diagnostic and research tool. Currently, there is limited evidence regarding standardizing this technique. The type of suction method and number of aliquots used as well as the anatomic lung segment sampled are not standardized nor well studied. Our primary aim was to compare the quantity and quality of BAL specimens using 2 suction methods, hand-held syringe versus wall suction. Our secondary aim was to assess which anatomic lung segment yields the greatest BAL results and how many aliquots are required.

METHODS

A prospective clinical study was performed in patients undergoing bronchoscopies using hand-held syringe or wall suction. On the basis of radiologic findings, 100 mL (with 4 aliquots) of normal saline was instilled and the percentage volume return calculated.

RESULTS

Sixy-six patients were enrolled. Thirty-three patients received hand-held syringe and 33 using wall suction. There was no significant difference in the percentage volume returned, or the adequacy of fluid between these suction methods. When comparing volumes of return from different lobes, greater returns were demonstrated from the right middle lobe (P=0.002). In addition, with each sequential aliquot instilled, the return of fluid was increased significantly (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

No significant difference was observed between hand-held syringe and wall suction in terms of volumes returned and microbiological or diagnostic yield. Performance of BAL in the right middle lobe is associated with increased return and should be preferentially used when performing a nontargeted BAL in patients with diffuse computed tomography chest changes.

Analytic Reviews : Initiating Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation is a central facet of intensive care medicine. Technological progress has led to major advances in this field. Initiation of mechanical ventila tion remains standard; however, many options are now available to continue mechanical ventilation. These mechanical options include assist-control ventilation, intermittent mandatory ventilation, pressure support ventilation, positive end-expiratory pressure, and high- frequency ventilation. The sophistication of ventilators has also allowed more procedures to be performed dur ing mechanical ventilation, including bronchoscopy and transbronchial biopsy. Complications do occur during mechanical ventilation, but can be minimized by vigi lance and use of proper procedures. The recent increase in home care will lead to increased use of alternatives to conventional ventilatory modes. Finally, more well- designed studies are needed as newer techniques are promoted.

Flexible Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy in the Intensive Care Unit

For the past 20 years, flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy (FOB) has been shown to be an important procedure in the diagnosis and management of patients in intensive care units (ICU). In adults, FOB is used therapeutically to remove retained secretions and to correct atelectasis not improved by conservative means. In the pediatric population, however, FOB is mainly used to diagnose tracheal disease in critically ill children. The principal risks of FOB are hypoxemia and dysrhythmias; hemor rhage and pneumothorax may occur as a result of biopsy procedures. In competent hands, these adverse compli cations of FOB are minimal. Although rigid bronchos copy remains pivotal in most pediatric bronchoscopic procedures, massive hemoptysis, foreign body removal, and laser therapy for occluding tumors of the upper airway, flexible FOB has an increasingly important role in the diagnosis and management of these disorders.

Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia in Adult Non-HIV Disorders

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) remains a serious infection in the immunocompromised host (in the absence of HIV infection) and presents significant management and diagnostic challenges to ICU physicians. Non-HIV PCP is generally abrupt in onset, and follows a fulminate course with high rates of hospitalization, ICT admission, respiratory failure, and requirement for intubation. Mortality is generally high, especially if mechanical ventilation is required. Non-invasive ventilatory support may be considered, although the rapid progression to respiratory failure often necessitates intubation at the time of presentation. Bronchoscopy is often required to establish the diagnosis, and empirical antimicrobial treatment specifically targeted to P. carinii should be initiated while awaiting confirmation. Adjunctive corticosteroids may accelerate recovery, although their use has not yet been established in non-HIV PCP. For the ICU physicians to diagnose PCP, the non-specific presentation of an acute febrile illness and respiratory distress with diffuse pulmonary infiltrates requires a high clinical index of suspician, familiarity with clinical conditions associated with increased risk for PCP, and a low threshold for bronchoscopy to establish the diagnosis.

Pneumocystis Pneumonia in Solid-Organ Transplant Recipients

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) is well known and described in AIDS patients. Due to the increasing use of cytotoxic and immunosuppressive therapies, the incidence of this infection has dramatically increased in the last years in patients with other predisposing immunodeficiencies and remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in solid-organ transplant (SOT) recipients. PCP in HIV-negative patients, such as SOT patients, harbors some specificity compared to AIDS patients, which could change the medical management of these patients. This article summarizes the current knowledge on the epidemiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnoses, prevention, and treatment of Pneumocystis pneumonia in solid-organ transplant recipients, with a particular focus on the changes caused by the use of post-transplantation prophylaxis.

Diagnostic value of bronchoalveolar lavage in leukemic and bone marrow transplant patients: the impact of antimicrobial therapy

There is significant morbidity and mortality from pneumonia in leukemic and bone marrow transplant patients. We sought to explore the diagnostic yield of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in these patients with new pulmonary infiltrates. A retrospective chart review of approximately 200 Non- human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) leukemic and Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) patients who underwent bronchoscopy at a single academic cancer center was performed. Antimicrobial use for less than 24 hours at the time of BAL was associated with a higher yield in this population (56.8% versus 32.8%, p<0.001). This supports performing bronchoscopy with BAL within 24 hours of antimicrobial therapy in leukemic and HSCT patients.

Invasive diagnostic strategies in immunosuppressed patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome

Immunosuppression predisposes the host to development of pulmonary infections, which can lead to respiratory failure and the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). There are multiple mechanisms by which a host can be immunosuppressed and each is associated with specific infectious pathogens. Early invasive diagnostic modalities such as fiber-optic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage, transbronchial biopsy, and open lung biopsy are complementary to serologic and noninvasive studies and assist in rapidly establishing an accurate diagnosis, which allows initiation of appropriate therapy and may improve outcomes with relative safety.

Flow cytometry increases the sensitivity of detection of leukemia and lymphoma cells in bronchoalveolar lavage specimens

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have definitively determined that flow cytometry (FC) is significantly more sensitive than cytomorphology (CM) in detection of hematolymphoid neoplasms (HLNs). However, its utility in paucicellular bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) specimens has not been established.

METHODS

FC was performed on BAL specimens submitted from 44 patients with a prior diagnosis of HLN. Panels chosen were based upon cellularity of specimen and patient history. FC results were compared with concurrent CM evaluations.

RESULTS

All 44 BALs were deemed satisfactory for FC and yielded informative results that assisted in diagnosis. Diagnoses included 22/44 B-cell neoplasms, 16/44 T-cell neoplasms, four/44 myeloid neoplasms, and two/44 plasma cell neoplasms. Overall concordance was demonstrated between FC and CM in 77% (34/44) of cases. In nine/44 cases (20%), one technique (FC or CM) clearly detected malignant cells when the other did not. FC was more sensitive than CM in detecting a HLN in eight/nine discordant cases. In only one case (one/44, 2%) were malignant HLN cells suspected by CM, but not identified by FC (one/44, 2%).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate, in the largest series published to date, that FC can be performed on BAL specimens. FC is indicated in evaluation of BAL for HLN and improves sensitivity of detection of HLN over CM alone. An integrated FC and CM approach is superior to either technique alone in diagnostic evaluation of BAL.

Bacterial yield from quantitative cultures of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in patients with pneumonia on antimicrobial therapy

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Early diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial choice are crucial when managing pneumonia patients, and quantitative culture of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is considered a useful method for identifying pneumonia pathogens. We evaluated the quantitative yield of BAL fluid bacterial cultures in patients being treated with antimicrobials and attempted to identify factors predictive of positive BAL cultures.

METHODS

Patients over 18 years old and whose BAL fluid was subjected to quantitative culture to identify the organism causative of pneumonia between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2009, were included. We reviewed the results of BAL fluid bacterial cultures and the clinical records, laboratory tests, and radiographic findings of the patients.

RESULTS

BAL was performed on 340 patients with pneumonia. A positive BAL culture, defined as isolation of more than 10(4) colony forming units/mL bacteria, was documented in 18 (5.29%) patients. Of these, 9 bacteria isolated from 10 patients were classified as probable pathogens. The most frequently isolated bacteria were methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. No independent predictive factor for positive BAL cultures was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

The yield of quantitative BAL fluid bacterial culture in patients already on antimicrobials was low. Clinicians should be cautious when performing a BAL culture in patients with pneumonia who are already on antimicrobials.

Intensive care of the cancer patient: recent achievements and remaining challenges

A few decades have passed since intensive care unit (ICU) beds have been available for critically ill patients with cancer. Although the initial reports showed dismal prognosis, recent data suggest that an increased number of patients with solid and hematological malignancies benefit from intensive care support, with dramatically decreased mortality rates. Advances in the management of the underlying malignancies and support of organ dysfunctions have led to survival gains in patients with life-threatening complications from the malignancy itself, as well as infectious and toxic adverse effects related to the oncological treatments. In this review, we will appraise the prognostic factors and discuss the overall perspective related to the management of critically ill patients with cancer. The prognostic significance of certain factors has changed over time. For example, neutropenia or autologous bone marrow transplantation (BMT) have less adverse prognostic implications than two decades ago. Similarly, because hematologists and oncologists select patients for ICU admission based on the characteristics of the malignancy, the underlying malignancy rarely influences short-term survival after ICU admission. Since the recent data do not clearly support the benefit of ICU support to unselected critically ill allogeneic BMT recipients, more outcome research is needed in this subgroup. Because of the overall increased survival that has been reported in critically ill patients with cancer, we outline an easy-to-use and evidence-based ICU admission triage criteria that may help avoid depriving life support to patients with cancer who can benefit. Lastly, we propose a research agenda to address unanswered questions.

Minimally Invasive Diagnostic Strategy in Immunocompromised Patients with Pulmonary Infiltrates

Acute respiratory failure (ARF) is the main reason for ICU admission in patients with haematological malignancies. High mortality rates of up to 50% are reported in this situation, and mortality is highest when mechanical ventilation is needed. Rapid and accurate diagnostic methods are needed in these vulnerable patients to ensure the prompt initiation of effective treatment. However, the broad array of possible cause of ARF raises diagnostic challenges. In this review, we discuss the DIRECT strategy, which identifies the most plausible diagnosis in each patient based on the type of immune deficiency and clinical presentation. We will focus on non-invasive laboratory tests developed in recent years, discussing their sensitivity and specificity. We also discuss the usefulness in cancer patients with specific organ dysfunctions of biomarkers introduced over the past few years.

Diagnostic Value of Bronchoalveolar Lavage in Community-acquired Pneumonia in a Routine Setting: A Study on Patients Treated in a Finnish University Hospital

Only a few previous studies have focused on the use or bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Our aim was to evaluate the diagnostic value of BAL in CAP in a routine clinical setting. 71 disease episodes were retrospectively analysed. The patients had undergone BAL for serious or slowly responding pneumonia. All procedures were performed during antimicrobial treatment of the patient. BAL fluid was cultivated for bacteria, fungi, and viruses. In 68 episodes, 1 or several specific polymerase chain reaction tests were performed. Only 1 (1.3%) quantitative bacterial culture was considered diagnostic for CAP, and indicated a change of antimicrobial treatment. The diagnostic yield increased to 9.8% when other methods were used. A respiratory virus was the only aetiology in 3 (6.0%) patients. In slowly responding pneumonia, also hospital-acquired pathogens and malignancies were identified, resulting in a total diagnostic yield of 20.0%. Thus, even when a large array of diagnostic assays was applied, the value of BAL in pretreated patients with CAP was very small, and its therapeutic implications minimal. In a subgroup of slowly responding pneumonia, the procedure was of some usefulness even after commencement of antimicrobial treatment.

Improved detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in a tertiary care reference hospital in India

We prospectively examined 143 clinical samples from 115 patients including both HIV infected (n=53) and HIV uninfected immunocompromized (n=62) patients, with lung infiltrates and with clinical features suggestive of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia/ PneumoCystis Pneumonia (PcP), using both microscopic techniques as well as PCR assay. Clinical samples in the present study consisted of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), tracheal aspirate (TA), nasopharyngeal aspirate (NPA), sputum and gastric aspirate (GA). Another group of 21 individuals with other respiratory diseases not compatible with PcP served as control during the study period of 15 months. Overall, P. jirovecii positivity rate by PCR was 12.17% (14/115 patients) compared to 3.4% (4/115) by microscopy. None of the specimens in the control group was positive by any of the techniques used. All PCR negative patients including cases and controls showed no evidence of PcP. After resolution of the discrepant results upon review of the clinical data, the sensitivity and specificity were 100% and 99%, respectively, for PCR and 30.7% and 100%, respectively, for microscopy by GMS staining. Thus, our data support the significance of PCR assay for confirming and improving the diagnosis of PcP in high-risk patients.

[Diagnostic strategy for acute respiratory failure in patients with haematological malignancy]

INTRODUCTION

About 15% of patients with haematological malignancy develop acute respiratory failure (ARF), necessitating admission to intensive care where their mortality is of the order of 50%.

STATE OF THE ART

The prognosis of these patients is not determined by the pathological characteristics of the malignancy but by the cause of the acute respiratory failure. In effect, the need to resort to mechanical ventilation in the presence of dysfunction of other organs dominates the prognosis. Even if the use of non-invasive ventilation in these patients has reduced the need for intubation and reduced the mortality, its prolonged use in the most severely affected patients prevents the optimal diagnostic and therapeutic management.

PERSPECTIVES

Fibreoptic bronchoscopy with broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) is considered the cornerstone of aetiological diagnosis but its diagnostic effectiveness is poor, at best 50%, and this has led to increasing interest in high resolution CT scanning and regularly reawakens a transitory enthusiasm for surgical lung biopsy. Furthermore, in hypoxaemic patients, fibreoptic bronchoscopy with BAL may be the origin of the resort to mechanical ventilation, and thus increased mortality. The place of recently developed non-invasive tools is under evaluation. In effect, though the individual performance of diagnostic molecular techniques on sputum, blood, urine or naso- pharyngeal secretions has been established, the combination of these tools as an alternative to BAL has not yet been reported.

CONCLUSION

This review deals with acute respiratory failure in patients with haematological malignancy. It includes a review of the recent literature and considers the current controversies, in particular the risk-benefit balance of fibreoptic bronchoscopy with BAL in severely hypoxaemic patients.

[Pneumonias and immunosuppression]

Pneumonias are common, life threatening complications in immunodeficient patients. A rapid, targeted diagnosis and therapy are decisive for the course of the disease. The etiological spectrum is substantially broader than for immunocompetent patients. Important indications are provided by the type and intensity of the immunosuppression, gaps in the prophylactic concept and particular exposures. For diagnostic planning, high resolution computed tomogram of the thorax is necessary. The standard method for isolating the pathogen is flexible bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage. Indications for invasive bioptic measures depend on the individual situation, the expected spectrum of pathogens as well as risk factors and adverse effects. Non-invasive antigen and PCR tests complement the diagnostic spectrum, especially for difficult to cultivate pathogens such as fungi and Herpes viruses. The selection of the initial, targeted antimicrobial therapy is based on guidelines. The treatment should be followed after obtaining the relevant microbiological data.

Diagnostic yield of bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage in febrile patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates

Infectious complications are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunosuppressed patients. Febrile patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates have high mortality rates, especially if mechanical ventilation is required. The diagnostic value of fiberoptic bronchoscopy (FOB) with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in these patients is controversial. We retrospectively analyzed the microbiological results of BAL samples obtained during 249 FOB examinations from 199 febrile patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates (underlying diseases: acute leukemia 103 patients, lymphoma 84 patients, other malignancies 12 patients). Two hundred forty-six examinations could be evaluated. Seventy-three out of 246 BAL samples were sterile; 55 samples showed microbiological findings classified as contamination or colonization. One hundred eighteen samples showed positive microbiological results of bacteria and/or fungi classified as causative pathogens. Thereof, in 70 samples, only bacterial pathogens were detectable (Gram-positive, 35; Gram-negative, 30; mixed Gram-positive and Gram-negative, 5). Thirteen samples showed both fungi and bacterial pathogens. In 33 samples, only fungi were detectable, thereof, in 15 samples Aspergillus species, in 16 samples Candida species, and in 2 both. In two samples, a viral pathogen could be detected. Three nonlethal complications (bleeding, arrhythmia) occurred that required early termination of FOB. In 94 (38.2%) patient episodes, antibiotic treatment was modified as a result of microbiological findings in BAL samples. Our results show that FOB with BAL is a valuable diagnostic tool with low complication rates in high-risk febrile patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates, contributing crucial results for the individual case, and also improving epidemiologic knowledge.

BAL neutrophils, serum procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein to predict bacterial infection in the immunocompromised host

BACKGROUND

Bacterial pulmonary infection is a common life-threatening complication in immunocompromised patients. The results of BAL cultures are not immediately available, and their microbiological yield might be limited by empiric antibiotic prescriptions. We evaluated clinical signs and symptoms, leukocyte counts, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, procalcitonin levels, and BAL fluid neutrophil percentages as potential markers for bacterial infection in a cohort of immunocompromised patients with pulmonary complications.

METHODS

One hundred seven consecutive patients who had been referred for bronchoscopy due to suspected pulmonary infection were included in this study. Based on clinical, laboratory, radiologic, microbiological, and histologic results, patients were classified as having proven bacterial infection (n = 27), possible bacterial infection (n = 11), and no bacterial infection (n = 69).

RESULTS

Most common underlying conditions were hematologic malignancy (n = 62) and solid organ transplantation (n = 20). Clinical parameters were similar in patients with and without bacterial infection (difference was not significant). The percentage of BAL fluid neutrophils had the highest area under the curve (0.818; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.700 to 0.935; p < 0.001), followed by absolute neutrophil counts (0.797; 95% CI, 0.678 to 0.916; p < 0.001), procalcitonin level (0.746; 95% CI, 0.602 to 0.889; p = 0.001), and CRP level (0.688; 95% CI, 0.555 to 0.821; p = 0.015) to predict proven bacterial infection (in opposition to no or possible bacterial infection) in the receiver operating characteristic analysis. Conversely, neither infiltrates (p = 0.123) nor leukocyte counts (p = 0.429) were useful in diagnosing bacterial infection. The percentage of BAL fluid neutrophils and procalcitonin level were independent predictors of bacterial infection in the multivariate regression.

CONCLUSIONS

Neutrophil percentage in BAL fluid, procalcitonin level, and CRP level might be potentially useful to differentiate bacterial infection from nonbacterial conditions in immunocompromised hosts with pulmonary complications.

Complications pulmonaires précoces des allogreffes de cellules souches hématopoïétiques

INTRODUCTION

Pneumonia is one of the main causes of mortality following allogenic stem cell transplantation, especially in the first months after the transplant has been performed.

STATE OF THE ART

Pneumonia is the most common infection occurring after transplant and the infection with the highest mortality. Following the classical, myeloablative approach to transplant, two thirds of the pneumonias that occur are of infectious origin. Their causes roughly follow the timing of the immune reconstitution, and may depend on the type of transplant, the match between donor and recipient, and, overall, the occurrence of graft-versus-host disease. Most bacterial pneumonias occur during the initial neutropenic phase. The 2nd and 3rd month post transplant are mainly complicated by viral pneumonia, especially respiratory virus and adenovirus pneumonia in deeply immunosuppressed patients. Preemptive and prophylactic strategies have considerably reduced the incidence of cytomegalovirus pneumonia. Pneumonia due to encapsulated bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae, usually considered to be late infections, may actually be observed from the second month post-transplant.

PERSPECTIVES

The increasing use of reduced-intensity conditioning regimens has modified the time course of the main adverse events following transplantation, including the timing of the infectious pneumonias. The pneumonias that are specifically related to allogenic transplant are idiopathic interstitial pneumonia, bronchiolitis obliterans, and bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia, which are all considered to be pulmonary manifestations of graft-versus-host disease, and treated as such. Prophylaxis for many of these infectious pneumonias (i.e., P jiroveci, S pneumoniae, toxoplasmosis) are well standardized.

CONCLUSIONS

Much remains to be done to decrease the incidence of pneumonia in these patients and to understand their mechanisms.

Bronchoscopic diagnosis of pulmonary infiltrates in granulocytopenic patients with hematologic malignancies: BAL versus PSB and PBAL

BACKGROUND

Treatment of patients with hematologic malignancies is often complicated by severe respiratory infections. Bronchoscopy is generally to be used as a diagnostic tool in order to find a causative pathogen.

OBJECTIVES

In a prospective study the combination of protected specimen brush (PSB) and protected bronchoalveolar lavage (PBAL) was compared with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) for evaluated feasibility and diagnostic yield in granulocytopenic patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates.

METHODS

All specimens from 63 bronchoscopic procedures (35 BAL and 28 PSB-PBAL) were investigated by cytological examination and various microbiological tests. If clinically relevant and feasible, based on the clinical condition and/or the presence of thrombocytopenia, lung tissue samples were obtained.

RESULTS

The majority of the 58 included patients were diagnosed as having acute myeloid leukaemia and developed a severe neutropenia (BAL-group: 27 days; PSB-PBAL group: 30 days). Microbiological and cytological examination of 63 bronchoscopic procedures (35 BAL and 28 PSB-PBAL) yielded causative pathogens in 9 (26%) patients of the BAL-group and 8 (29%) patients of the PSB-PBAL group (PSB and PBAL 4 each). Aspergillus fumigatus was the pathogen most frequently (13%) detected. Using all available examinations including the results of autopsy, a presumptive diagnosis was established in 43% of the patients in the BAL group and 57% of those in the PSB-PBAL group; in these cases microbial aetiology was correctly identified in 67% and 57%, respectively. The complication rate was of these procedures were low, and none of the patients experienced serious complications due to the invasive techniques.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that modern bronchoscopic techniques such as PSB and PBAL did not yield better diagnostic results compared to BAL in granulocytopenic patients with hematologic malignancies and pulmonary infiltrates. In approximately half of the cases a presumptive diagnosis was made by bronchoscopic procedures.

Evaluation of pulmonary infiltrates in patients after stem cell transplantation

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is potentially curative therapy that has become the standard of care for many hematologic malignancies. Pulmonary complications occur in about 50% of stem cell transplant recipients and no other organ dysfunction has a higher mortality. Unfortunately the diagnosis of these infiltrates is hampered by the poor yield from routine studies and this patient population is rarely able to tolerate more risky procedures that will obtain tissue for microscopy and culture. A bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is usually insufficient to make a diagnosis of invasive fungal, significant bacterial, or pathogenic viral infections in patients that will still benefit from a change in therapy. In this review we discuss the infectious etiologies of pulmonary infiltrates post hematopoietic stem cell transplant, the non-infectious causes of infiltrates such as diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, engraftment syndrome, and idiopathic pneumonia syndrome, and the yield of newer diagnostic procedures ranging from peripheral blood galactomannan to cytomegalovirus antigenemia, and report on new technologies that promise more accurate and timely diagnoses of these infiltrates.

Diagnostic strategy in cancer patients with acute respiratory failure

OBJECTIVE

Nearly 15% of cancer patients experience acute respiratory failure (ARF) requiring admission to the intensive care unit, where their mortality is about 50%. This review focuses on ARF in cancer patients. The most recent literature is reviewed, and emphasis is placed on current controversies, most notably the risk/benefit ratio of fiberoptic bronchoscopy and BAL in patients with severe hypoxemia.

BACKGROUND

Fiberoptic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is the cornerstone of the causal diagnosis. However, the low diagnostic yield of about 50%, related to the widespread use of broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy in cancer patients, has generated interest in high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) and primary surgical lung biopsy. In patients with hypoxemia, bronchoscopy and BAL may trigger a need for invasive mechanical ventilation, thus considerably decreasing the chances of survival.

DISCUSSION

The place for recently developed, effective, noninvasive diagnostic tools (tests on sputum, blood, urine, and nasopharyngeal aspirates) needs to be determined. The prognosis is not markedly influenced by cancer characteristics; it is determined chiefly by the cause of ARF, need for mechanical ventilation, and presence of other organ failures. Although noninvasive ventilation reduces the need for endotracheal intubation and diminishes mortality rate, its prolonged use in patients with severe disease may preclude optimal diagnostic and therapeutic management. The appropriateness of switching to endotracheal mechanical ventilation in patients who fail noninvasive ventilation warrants evaluation.

CONCLUSION

This review discusses risks and benefits from invasive and non invasive diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in critically ill cancer patients with acute respiratory failure. Avenues for research are also suggested in order to improve survival in these very high risk patients.

The futility of the clinical pulmonary infection score in trauma patients

INTRODUCTION

The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score (CPIS) has received much attention recently. Advocates have touted its use for the diagnosis and duration of therapy in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). However, little has been written about its utility in trauma patients. The clinical, physiologic, and radiologic components of the CPIS may be difficult to differentiate from the systemic effects of injury. Quantitative cultures of the lower airway have been shown to be efficacious in differentiating VAP from the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). In this study, we evaluated the potential use of CPIS as the sole means for diagnosis of VAP in critically injured patients.

METHODS

Patients were identified from the VAP database maintained in our Level I trauma center. Only those who had CPIS calculated at the time of bronchoscopy with BAL were included. VAP required >or=10 colonies/mL on quantitative BAL for diagnosis. Antibiotic therapy was based on quantitative BAL results. Patients with <10 colonies/mL were diagnosed with SIRS. Sensitivity and specificity of a CPIS>6 for VAP diagnosis (confirmed by BAL) were calculated.

RESULTS

In all, 158 patients underwent 285 BALs. The overall incidence for VAP was 42%. Patients with episodes of VAP and SIRS were well matched for age, Injury Severity Score, APACHE II score, and Glasgow Coma Scale score. The average CPIS was 6.8 in patients with SIRS and 6.9 for those with VAP. Using a CPIS>6 as the threshold for VAP only yielded a sensitivity of 61% and a specificity of 43%.

CONCLUSIONS

CPIS cannot differentiate VAP from SIRS in critically injured patients. Using CPIS to initiate antibiotic therapy in trauma patients could be harmful. Whether CPIS is useful to determine duration of antibiotic therapy is unknown.

Microbiologic features and outcome of pneumonia in transplanted patients

We prospectively evaluated lower respiratory tract infections in solid organ transplantation (SOT) patients to determine the microbiologic diagnosis and clinical outcomes. We diagnosed 83 cases of pneumonia, 38 of which were community acquired and 45 were nosocomial. Those with bilateral infiltrates or absence of improvement after 3 days of treatment underwent fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Bacterial pneumonia was the most frequent diagnosis and mixed infection predominated in the nosocomial group (11/45 nosocomial versus 1/38 community). Fiberoptic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage had higher diagnostic yield in nosocomial pneumonia (77% versus 47%). Mortality differences between the 2 groups were 58% nosocomial versus 8% community-acquired infections (P < 0.001). SOT patients with nosocomial pneumonia, or those who needed mechanical ventilation, had a high mortality rate and benefits from the fiberoptic diagnostic techniques.