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Umpierrez GE, Davis GM, ElSayed NA, Fadini GP, Galindo RJ, Hirsch IB, Klonoff DC, McCoy RG, Misra S, Gabbay RA, Bannuru RR, Dhatariya KK. Hyperglycaemic crises in adults with diabetes: a consensus report. Diabetologia 2024:10.1007/s00125-024-06183-8. [PMID: 38907161 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-024-06183-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
The American Diabetes Association (ADA), European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD), Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care (JBDS), American Association of Clinical Endocrinology (AACE) and Diabetes Technology Society (DTS) convened a panel of internists and diabetologists to update the ADA consensus statement on hyperglycaemic crises in adults with diabetes, published in 2001 and last updated in 2009. The objective of this consensus report is to provide up-to-date knowledge about the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) in adults. A systematic examination of publications since 2009 informed new recommendations. The target audience is the full spectrum of diabetes healthcare professionals and individuals with diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Lipids, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Georgia M Davis
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Lipids, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nuha A ElSayed
- American Diabetes Association, Arlington, VA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gian Paolo Fadini
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padua, Italy
| | - Rodolfo J Galindo
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Irl B Hirsch
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - David C Klonoff
- Diabetes Research Institute, Mills-Peninsula Medical Center, San Mateo, CA, USA
| | - Rozalina G McCoy
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- University of Maryland Institute for Health Computing, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shivani Misra
- Division of Metabolism, Digestion & Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Department of Diabetes & Endocrinology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Robert A Gabbay
- American Diabetes Association, Arlington, VA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Ketan K Dhatariya
- Elsie Bertram Diabetes Centre, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Norwich, UK
- Department of Medicine, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
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Belal MM, Khalefa BB, Rabea EM, Aly Yassin MN, Bashir MN, Abd El-Hameed MM, Elkoumi O, Saad SM, Saad LM, Elkasaby MH. Low dose insulin infusion versus the standard dose in children with diabetic ketoacidosis: a meta-analysis. Future Sci OA 2024; 10:FSO956. [PMID: 38827803 PMCID: PMC11140676 DOI: 10.2144/fsoa-2023-0137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim: This systematic review aims to consolidate findings from current clinical trials that compare the effectiveness of insulin infusion at 0.05 IU/kg/h versus 0.1 IU/kg/h in managing pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. Methods: We searched several databases, including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Central and Web of Science. Our primary outcomes were time to reach blood glucose ≤250 mg/dl and time to resolution of acidosis. Secondary outcomes included rate of blood glucose decrease per hour, incidence of hypoglycemia, hypokalemia, treatment failure, and cerebral edema. Results & conclusion: The present study establishes that a low insulin dose exhibits comparable efficacy to the standard dosage for managing pediatric patients suffering from diabetic ketoacidosis, with a lower incidence of complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Mohamed Belal
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Basma Badrawy Khalefa
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
- Faculty of Medicine, Ain shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Eslam Mohammed Rabea
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mazen Negmeldin Aly Yassin
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
- Faculty of Medicine, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Nabih Bashir
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Malak Mohamed Abd El-Hameed
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
- Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Ash Sharqia, Egypt
| | - Omar Elkoumi
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
- Faculty of Medicine, Suez University, Suez, Egypt
| | - Saad Mohamed Saad
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Loubna Mohamed Saad
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Hamouda Elkasaby
- Medical Research Group of Egypt (MRGE), Cairo, Egypt
- Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
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González-Vidal T, Lambert C, García AV, Villa-Fernández E, Pujante P, Ares-Blanco J, Menéndez Torre E, Delgado-Álvarez E. Hypoglycemia during hyperosmolar hyperglycemic crises is associated with long-term mortality. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2024; 16:83. [PMID: 38594758 PMCID: PMC11005231 DOI: 10.1186/s13098-024-01329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous research has indicated that hypoglycemia during hospitalization is a predictor of unfavorable outcomes in patients with diabetes. However, no studies have examined the long-term impact of hypoglycemia in adults admitted for hyperglycemic crises. The study was aimed to investigate the long-term implications of hypoglycemia during hyperosmolar hyperglycemic crises, particularly in terms of all-cause mortality. METHODS This retrospective cohort study included 170 patients (82 men [48.2%], median age 72 years) admitted to a university hospital for hyperosmolar hyperglycemic crises, including pure hyperosmolar hyperglycemic states and hyperosmolar diabetic ketoacidoses. We separately investigated the prognostic significance of hypoglycemia on mortality during the initial intravenous insulin therapy phase and during the later subcutaneous insulin therapy phase, both during hospitalization and in the long term (median follow-up, 652 days; range 2-3460 days). RESULTS Both hypoglycemia during the initial intravenous insulin therapy phase (observed in 26.5% of patients) and hypoglycemia during the later subcutaneous insulin therapy phase (observed in 52.7% of patients) were associated with long-term mortality. After adjusting for potential confounders, hypoglycemia during the initial intravenous insulin therapy phase remained associated with mortality (hazard ratio 2.10, 95% CI 1.27-3.46, p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS Hypoglycemia during hyperosmolar hyperglycemic crises is a marker of long-term mortality, especially when it occurs during the initial intravenous insulin therapy phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomás González-Vidal
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias/University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.
| | - Carmen Lambert
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Ana Victoria García
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Elsa Villa-Fernández
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Pedro Pujante
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias/University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Jessica Ares-Blanco
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias/University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Edelmiro Menéndez Torre
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias/University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elías Delgado-Álvarez
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias/University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Uhlig M, Karasimos E. Quiz intensiv – stellen Sie die Diagnose! Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 2023; 58:195-198. [PMID: 36958315 DOI: 10.1055/a-1888-6512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
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Saikia D, Mittal M, Kanakaraju C, Dhingra D, Kumar M. Efficacy and Safety of Low Dose Insulin Infusion against Standard Dose Insulin Infusion in Children with Diabetic Ketoacidosis- An Open Labelled Randomized Controlled Trial. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2022; 26:173-179. [PMID: 35873943 PMCID: PMC9302420 DOI: 10.4103/ijem.ijem_50_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the efficacy and safety of low dose insulin infusion (0.05 U/kg/h) against the standard dose insulin infusion (0.1 U/kg/h) in children with diabetic ketoacidosis. METHOD Children (age <12 years, n = 30) presenting with diabetic ketoacidosis were enrolled and randomised to receive insulin infusion either as 0.05 U/kg/h (low dose) or 0.1 U/kg/h (standard dose) as an open labelled randomised controlled trial. The rest of the management was identical in both groups. The time taken for resolution of acidosis (pH ≥7.3 and HCO3 ≥15) was the primary outcome variable. The secondary outcome variables included the time taken until a decline in blood glucose to 250 mg/dl, the proportion of children developing hypoglycemia and hypokalemia, and any treatment failure. RESULTS The two groups were similar with respect to mean age, weight and gender distribution. New-onset diabetes was diagnosed on 24/30. The mean ± SD time for resolution of acidosis was similar between the groups; 27.0 ± 6.1 hours in the low dose group vs 23.4 ± 7.3 hours in standard dose group, P = 0.16. The mean time for the decline in blood glucose to 250 mg/dl was 13.0 ± 5.9 hours in low dose vs 11.6 ± 6.0 hours in standard dose group, P = 0.52. A lesser proportion of participants developed hypoglycemia and hypokalemia in the low dose group, though not statistically significant. There was no incidence of treatment failure in either group. CONCLUSION Low dose insulin infusion is equally effective and safe as standard dose insulin infusion in children with diabetic ketoacidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diganta Saikia
- Department of Pediatrics, Chacha Nehru Bal Chikitsalaya, Delhi, India
| | - Medha Mittal
- Department of Pediatrics, Chacha Nehru Bal Chikitsalaya, Delhi, India
| | | | - Dhulika Dhingra
- Department of Pediatrics, Chacha Nehru Bal Chikitsalaya, Delhi, India
| | - Manish Kumar
- Department of Pediatrics, Chacha Nehru Bal Chikitsalaya, Delhi, India
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Modzelewski KL, Cannavo A, Fantasia KL, Korpaisarn S, Alexanian SM. A quality improvement initiative to successfully reduce the frequency of hypoglycemia during treatment of hyperglycemic crises at an academic safety-net hospital: Insights and results. J Clin Transl Endocrinol 2021; 26:100269. [PMID: 34804807 PMCID: PMC8581574 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcte.2021.100269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoglycemia occurs frequently during treatment of hyperglycemic crisis. Development of protocols to standardize hyperglycemic crisis treatment can mitigate risk of hypoglycemia. Usability of protocols must be considered in addition to efficacy to ensure they can be followed appropriately.
Background Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) are potentially life-threatening complications of diabetes. Many hospitals have developed protocols to guide the management of these conditions and align with best practices. One of the main complications encountered in the treatment of hyperglycemic crises is hypoglycemia. Methods At our institution, we undertook a review of our insulin infusion titration protocol, rates of hypoglycemia, and time to clinical resolution for patients with hyperglycemic crises. A multidisciplinary team performed a literature review and analyzed baseline hospital data with the existing protocol. With the input of multiple stakeholders, several changes were made to the titration algorithm over multiple PDSA cycles to refine the protocol. Effectiveness and safety of the protocol, as well as fidelity with the protocol, were assessed after each PDSA cycle. Results After the initial cycle, chart review showed a reduction in hypoglycemia rates of more than 50% in patients treated with the new protocol without any increase in time to resolution of DKA. A second version of the protocol was implemented to improve usability, and improvement in hypoglycemia was maintained. Conclusion Despite the fact that the initial protocol had been developed based on best practice recommendations, rates of hypoglycemia were initially high. Critical assessment of pitfalls in management allowed changes to the protocol that significantly and sustainably reduced hypoglycemia.
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Migdal AL, Fortin-Leung C, Pasquel F, Wang H, Peng L, Umpierrez GE. Inpatient Glycemic Control With Sliding Scale Insulin in Noncritical Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: Who Can Slide? J Hosp Med 2021; 16:462-468. [PMID: 34328842 PMCID: PMC8340956 DOI: 10.12788/jhm.3654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Despite clinical guideline recommendations, sliding scale insulin (SSI) is widely used for the hospital management of patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). We aimed to determine which patients with T2D can be appropriately managed with SSI in non-critical care settings. METHODS We used electronic health records to assess inpatient glycemic control in medicine and surgical patients treated with SSI according to admission blood glucose (BG) concentration between June 2010 and June 2018. Primary outcome was the percentage of patients with T2D achieving target glycemic control, defined as mean hospital BG 70 to 180 mg/dL without hypoglycemia <70 mg/dL during SSI therapy. RESULTS Among 25,813 adult patients with T2D, 8,095 patients (31.4%) were treated with SSI. Among patients with admission BG <140 mg/dL and BG 140 to 180 mg/dL, 86% and 83%, respectively, achieved target control without hypoglycemia, as compared with only 18% of those with admission BG ≥250 mg/dL (P < .001). After adjusting for age, gender, body mass index (BMI), race, Charlson Comorbidity Index score, and setting, the odds of poor glycemic control increased with higher admission BG (BG 140-180 mg/dL: odds ratio [OR], 1.8; 95% CI, 1.5-2.2; BG 181-250 mg/dL: OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 3.1-4.4; BG >250 mg/dL: OR, 7.2; 95% CI, 5.8-9.0), as compared with patients with BG <140 mg/dL. A total of 1,192 patients (15%) treated with SSI required additional basal insulin during hospitalization. CONCLUSION Most non-intensive care unit patients with admission BG <180 mg/dL treated with SSI alone achieve target glycemic control during hospitalization, suggesting that cautious use of SSI may be a viable option for certain patients with mild hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Heqiong Wang
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Limin Peng
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Corresponding Author: Guillermo E Umpierrez, MD, CDE; ; Telephone: 404-778-1665
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Rameshkumar R, Satheesh P, Jain P, Anbazhagan J, Abraham S, Subramani S, Parameswaran N, Mahadevan S. Low-Dose (0.05 Unit/kg/hour) vs Standard-Dose (0.1 Unit/kg/hour) Insulin in the Management of Pediatric Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial. Indian Pediatr 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13312-021-2255-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Hishida Y, Nakamura Y, Tsukiyama H, Nakagawa T, Sone M. A retrospective cohort study for the treatment of Asian diabetic ketoacidosis: optimizing initial doses of insulin. Acute Med Surg 2021; 8:e721. [PMID: 34976402 PMCID: PMC8705869 DOI: 10.1002/ams2.721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim An insulin dose of 0.1 U/kg/h recommended by Western guidelines occasionally induces a precipitous decreasing blood glucose in Asian diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). It is known that clinical factors, such as insulin sensitivity, differ between Asians and Americans/Europeans. We investigated how treatment options affect the time to DKA resolution to determine the optimal treatment for Asian DKA patients. Methods This was a retrospective cohort study from a single institution in Japan. A total of 34 adult DKA patients were observed. Baseline characteristics and treatment‐related parameters were compared between patients whose DKA was resolved within 18 h and those in which it was not. Results Significant differences were observed in the initial insulin dose (mean [standard deviation]: 0.053 [0.021] versus 0.031 [0.014] U/kg/h; P = 0.003) and the baseline β‐hydroxybutyrate (7.2 [3.2] versus 9.9 [2.6] mmol/L; P = 0.024) and HCO3− levels (11.2 [4.1] versus 7.7 [3.1] mmol/L; P = 0.014). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that the initial insulin dose was significantly associated with early resolution of DKA and was independent of basal conditions. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis indicated that the optimal cut‐off point for the initial insulin dose was 0.051 U/kg/h. With an initial insulin dose of 0.051 U/kg/h or higher, early resolution of DKA was obtained in 92.9% of patients. Conclusion An initial insulin dose of more than 0.05 U/kg/h provides an early resolution of DKA in Asian patients. Lower insulin doses significantly delay resolution. These results provide practical information for acute phase treatment of Asian DKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Hishida
- Division of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine St. Marianna University School of Medicine Kawasaki Japan
| | - Yuta Nakamura
- Division of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine St. Marianna University School of Medicine Kawasaki Japan
| | - Hidekazu Tsukiyama
- Division of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine St. Marianna University School of Medicine Kawasaki Japan
| | - Tomoko Nakagawa
- Division of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine St. Marianna University School of Medicine Kawasaki Japan
| | - Masakatsu Sone
- Division of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine St. Marianna University School of Medicine Kawasaki Japan
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Impact of a Nurse-Driven Diabetic Ketoacidosis Insulin Infusion Calculator on the Rate of Hypoglycemia. J Patient Saf 2020; 16:e255-e259. [PMID: 33215892 DOI: 10.1097/pts.0000000000000647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of an insulin infusion calculator incorporated into electronic health record system in reducing the rate of hypoglycemia in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) management. METHODS Retrospective chart review of patients with primary admission diagnosis of DKA was conducted in a university-affiliated academic medical center. End points including the rate of hypoglycemia, time to DKA resolution, rate of hypokalemia, time on insulin drip, and length of stay were measure before and after implementation of DKA calculator. RESULTS Of 181 adult patients admitted for primary diagnosis of DKA, 103 were managed using the calculator. After implementation of the calculator, incidence of hypoglycemia and severe hypoglycemia were significantly reduced by 70% and 87%, respectively (P < 0.01). No difference was observed for time to DKA resolution, time on insulin drip, and length of stay. CONCLUSIONS Implementation of DKA insulin infusion calculator significantly reduced the rate of hypoglycemia. Future improvements should focus on reducing time to DKA resolution and length of stay.
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Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is the most common acute hyperglycaemic emergency in people with diabetes mellitus. A diagnosis of DKA is confirmed when all of the three criteria are present - 'D', either elevated blood glucose levels or a family history of diabetes mellitus; 'K', the presence of high urinary or blood ketoacids; and 'A', a high anion gap metabolic acidosis. Early diagnosis and management are paramount to improve patient outcomes. The mainstays of treatment include restoration of circulating volume, insulin therapy, electrolyte replacement and treatment of any underlying precipitating event. Without optimal treatment, DKA remains a condition with appreciable, although largely preventable, morbidity and mortality. In this Primer, we discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors and diagnosis of DKA and provide practical recommendations for the management of DKA in adults and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketan K Dhatariya
- Elsie Bertram Diabetes Centre, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Colney Lane, Norwich, Norfolk, UK.,Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
| | - Nicole S Glaser
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Ethel Codner
- Institute of Maternal and Child Research, School of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Pasquel FJ, Tsegka K, Wang H, Cardona S, Galindo RJ, Fayfman M, Davis G, Vellanki P, Migdal A, Gujral U, Narayan KMV, Umpierrez GE. Clinical Outcomes in Patients With Isolated or Combined Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State: A Retrospective, Hospital-Based Cohort Study. Diabetes Care 2020; 43:349-357. [PMID: 31704689 PMCID: PMC6971788 DOI: 10.2337/dc19-1168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Many patients with hyperglycemic crises present with combined features of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). The implications of concomitant acidosis and hyperosmolality are not well known. We investigated hospital outcomes in patients with isolated or combined hyperglycemic crises. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We analyzed admissions data listing DKA or HHS at two academic hospitals. We determined 1) the frequency distributions of HHS, DKA, and combined DKA-HHS (DKA criteria plus elevated effective osmolality); 2) the relationship of markers of severity of illness and clinical comorbidities with 30-day all-cause mortality; and 3) the relationship of hospital complications associated with insulin therapy (hypoglycemia and hypokalemia) with mortality. RESULTS There were 1,211 patients who had a first admission with confirmed hyperglycemic crises criteria, 465 (38%) who had isolated DKA, 421 (35%) who had isolated HHS, and 325 (27%) who had combined features of DKA-HHS. After adjustment for age, sex, BMI, race, and Charlson Comorbidity Index score, subjects with combined DKA-HHS had higher in-hospital mortality compared with subjects with isolated hyperglycemic crises (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.7; 95% CI 1.4, 4.9; P = 0.0019). In all groups, hypoglycemia (<40 mg/dL) during treatment was associated with a 4.8-fold increase in mortality (aOR 4.8; 95% CI 1.4, 16.8). Hypokalemia ≤3.5 mEq/L was frequent (55%). Severe hypokalemia (≤2.5 mEq/L) was associated with increased inpatient mortality (aOR 4.9; 95% CI 1.3, 18.8; P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS Combined DKA-HHS is associated with higher mortality compared with isolated DKA or HHS. Severe hypokalemia and severe hypoglycemia are associated with higher hospital mortality in patients with hyperglycemic crises.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katerina Tsegka
- Department of Medicine/Endocrinology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Heqiong Wang
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Saumeth Cardona
- Department of Medicine/Endocrinology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | | | - Maya Fayfman
- Department of Medicine/Endocrinology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Georgia Davis
- Department of Medicine/Endocrinology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | | | - Alexandra Migdal
- Department of Medicine/Endocrinology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Unjali Gujral
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
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Usman A, Makmor Bakry M, Mustafa N, Rehman IU, Bukhsh A, Lee SWH, Khan TM. Correlation of acidosis-adjusted potassium level and cardiovascular outcomes in diabetic ketoacidosis: a systematic review. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2019; 12:1323-1338. [PMID: 31496770 PMCID: PMC6689561 DOI: 10.2147/dmso.s208492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the progress and resolution of a diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) episode, potassium levels are significantly affected by the extent of acidosis. However, none of the current guidelines take into account acidosis during resuscitation of potassium level in DKA management, which may increase the risk of cardiovascular adverse events. OBJECTIVE To assess literature regarding the adjustment of potassium level using pH to calculate pH-adjusted corrected potassium level, and to observe the relationship of cardiovascular outcomes with reported potassium level and pH-adjusted corrected potassium in DKA. METHODOLOGY Seven databases were searched from inception to January 2018 for studies which had reported people with diabetes developing diabetic ketoacidosis, in relation to prevalence or incidence, fluid resuscitation or potassium supplementation treatment, treatment or cardiovascular outcomes, and experimentation with DKA management or insulin. Quality of studies was evaluated using Cochrane Risk of Bias and Newcastle Ottawa Scale. RESULTS Forty-seven studies were included in qualitative synthesis out of a total of 10,292 retrieved studies. Forty-one studies discussed the potassium level and blood pH at the time of admission, ten studies discussed cardiovascular outcomes, and only four studies concurrently discussed potassium level, pH, and cardiovascular outcomes. Only two studies were graded as good on the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. The reported potassium level was well within normal range (5.8 mmol/L), whereas pH rendered patients to be moderately acidotic (7.13). Surprisingly, none of the included studies mentioned pH-adjusted corrected potassium level and, hence, this was calculated later. Although mean corrected potassium was within the normal range (3.56 mmol/L), 13 studies had corrected potassium below 3.5 mmol/L and five had it below 3.0 mmol/L. Nevertheless, with the exception of one study, none discussed cardiovascular outcomes in the context of potassium or pH-adjusted potassium level. CONCLUSION The evidence surrounding cardiovascular outcomes during DKA episodes in light of a pH-adjusted corrected potassium level is scarce. A prospective observational, or preferably, an experimental study in this regard will ensure we can modify and enhance safety of existing DKA treatment protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atif Usman
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
- Correspondence: Atif UsmanSchool of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan47500, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, MalaysiaEmail
| | - Mohd Makmor Bakry
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Norlaila Mustafa
- Department of Endocrinology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Inayat Ur Rehman
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Allah Bukhsh
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Shaun Wen Huey Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Tahir Mehmood Khan
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
- Asian Centre for Evidence Synthesis in Population, Implementation and Clinical Outcomes, Health and Well-being Cluster, Global Asia in the 21st Century Platform, Monash University Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
- Tahir Mehmood KhanSchool of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan47500, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, MalaysiaEmail ;
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Lee K, Park IB, Yu SH, Kim SK, Kim SH, Seo DH, Hong S, Jeon JY, Kim DJ, Kim SW, Choi CS, Lee DH. Characterization of variable presentations of diabetic ketoacidosis based on blood ketone levels and major society diagnostic criteria: a new view point on the assessment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2019; 12:1161-1171. [PMID: 31410042 PMCID: PMC6645697 DOI: 10.2147/dmso.s209938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM We aimed to evaluate the clinical utility of blood ketone measurement and to test the performance of the diagnostic criteria for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) issued by the American Diabetes Association, the Joint British Diabetes Societies, and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American College of Endocrinology. METHODS This retrospective analysis included 278 patients with suspected DKA who were hospitalized at 4 university hospitals and aged ≥16 years with a blood glucose level of >200 mg/dL and a blood ketone level of ≥1.0 mmol/L as well as other biochemical data. The patients were categorized into four subgroups (ketosis, typical DKA, atypical DKA, and DKA + lactic acidosis). Atypical DKA in each analysis was defined by our supplementary criteria if the biochemical data did not meet each set of diagnostic criteria from the aforementioned societies. RESULTS Blood ketone levels in patients with diabetic ketosis and those with DKA varied widely, 1.05-5.13 mmol/L and 1.02-15.9 mmol/L, respectively. Additionally, there were significant discrepancies between the guidelines in the diagnosis of DKA. Thus, the proportion of patients with atypical DKA ranged from 16.5% to 42.4%. Notably, the in-hospital mortality was comparable between patients with typical and atypical DKA, with a very high mortality in patients with DKA + lactic acidosis (blood lactate >5 mmol/L). CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that considering variable presentations of DKA, blood ketone data need to be interpreted cautiously along with other biochemical data and suggested that a new system is required to better characterize DKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoung Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ie Byung Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Hee Yu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo-Kyung Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University School of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
| | - So Hun Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Da Hea Seo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongbin Hong
- Department of Internal Medicine, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ja Young Jeon
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Jung Kim
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Wan Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheol Soo Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Ho Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University College of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: Dae Ho LeeDepartment of Internal Medicine, Gil Medical Center, Gachon University College of Medicine, 21 Namdong-daero 774 beon-gil, Namdong-gu, Incheon21565, Republic of KoreaTel +82 32 458 2733Fax +82 32 899 6033Email
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Ritarwan K, Lelo A, Pane YS, Nerdy N. Increasing Atherosclerosis in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes into Four Groups of Mice. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2018. [PMID: 29531590 PMCID: PMC5839434 DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2018.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM: To study the protective effect of medicines on the formation of atherosclerosis in mice, it is needed to conduct the study in mice which is not genetically diabetic mice induced by streptozotocin (STZ) to produce hyperglycemia and atherosclerosis, compared with mice treated by yolk or its combination. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fifty-six mice, Double Deutch Webster strain, male, receive 10 weeks, 20 - 30 gr bodyweight were divided into 4 groups (n = 14) i.e. control (do not received any agents), STZ (45 mg/kg/BW was injected intraperitoneally for 5 days), yolk (0.2 cc orally daily for 6 weeks), and combination of STZ and yolk ( STZ: 45 mg/kg/BW intraperitoneally add 0.2 cc yolk orally). All animals were executed in the 42nd day. Then, the aorta of the mice’s heart tissue was histopathology examined. Blood glucose and cholesterol levels were determined every week. RESULTS: Hyperglycemia occurred in mice induced by STZ injection with the highest BGL (521.8 ± 48.2 mg/dl; 188.4%) in the 4th-week observation; after that BGL decrease. We found that, except the control, all treatment groups with STZ, egg yolk, and combination underwent atherosclerosis. CONCLUSION: The present study was able to demonstrate the occurrence of atherosclerosis in mice treated by STZ accompanied with increasing blood glucose and cholesterol level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiking Ritarwan
- Department of Neurology, Adam Malik General Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
| | - Aznan Lelo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
| | - Yunita Sari Pane
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
| | - Nerdy Nerdy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
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Tran TTT, Pease A, Wood AJ, Zajac JD, Mårtensson J, Bellomo R, Ekinci EI. Review of Evidence for Adult Diabetic Ketoacidosis Management Protocols. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:106. [PMID: 28659865 PMCID: PMC5468371 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an endocrine emergency with associated risk of morbidity and mortality. Despite this, DKA management lacks strong evidence due to the absence of large randomised controlled trials (RCTs). OBJECTIVE To review existing studies investigating inpatient DKA management in adults, focusing on intravenous (IV) fluids; insulin administration; potassium, bicarbonate, and phosphate replacement; and DKA management protocols and impact of DKA resolution rates on outcomes. METHODS Ovid Medline searches were conducted with limits "all adult" and published between "1973 to current" applied. National consensus statements were also reviewed. Eligibility was determined by two reviewers' assessment of title, abstract, and availability. RESULTS A total of 85 eligible articles published between 1973 and 2016 were reviewed. The salient findings were (i) Crystalloids are favoured over colloids though evidence is lacking. The preferred crystalloid and hydration rates remain contentious. (ii) IV infusion of regular human insulin is preferred over the subcutaneous route or rapid acting insulin analogues. Administering an initial IV insulin bolus before low-dose insulin infusions obviates the need for supplemental insulin. Consensus-statements recommend fixed weight-based over "sliding scale" insulin infusions although evidence is weak. (iii) Potassium replacement is imperative although no trials compare replacement rates. (iv) Bicarbonate replacement offers no benefit in DKA with pH > 6.9. In severe metabolic acidosis with pH < 6.9, there is lack of both data and consensus regarding bicarbonate administration. (v) There is no evidence that phosphate replacement offers outcome benefits. Guidelines consider replacement appropriate in patients with cardiac dysfunction, anaemia, respiratory depression, or phosphate levels <0.32 mmol/L. (vi) Upon resolution of DKA, subcutaneous insulin is recommended with IV insulin infusions ceased with an overlap of 1-2 h. (vii) DKA resolution rates are often used as end points in studies, despite a lack of evidence that rapid resolution improves outcome. (viii) Implementation of DKA protocols lacks strong evidence for adherence but may lead to improved clinical outcomes. CONCLUSION There are major deficiencies in evidence for optimal management of DKA. Current practice is guided by weak evidence and consensus opinion. All aspects of DKA management require RCTs to affirm or redirect management and formulate consensus evidence-based practice to improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara T. T. Tran
- Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Anthony Pease
- Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Anna J. Wood
- Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jeffrey D. Zajac
- Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Austin Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Johan Mårtensson
- Department of Intensive Care, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Department of Intensive Care, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Elif I. Ekinci
- Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Austin Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin, NT, Australia
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Dhatariya KK, Vellanki P. Treatment of Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)/Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (HHS): Novel Advances in the Management of Hyperglycemic Crises (UK Versus USA). Curr Diab Rep 2017; 17:33. [PMID: 28364357 PMCID: PMC5375966 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-017-0857-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) are diabetic emergencies that cause high morbidity and mortality. Their treatment differs in the UK and USA. This review delineates the differences in diagnosis and treatment between the two countries. RECENT FINDINGS Large-scale studies to determine optimal management of DKA and HHS are lacking. The diagnosis of DKA is based on disease severity in the USA, which differs from the UK. The diagnosis of HHS in the USA is based on total rather than effective osmolality. Unlike the USA, the UK has separate guidelines for DKA and HHS. Treatment of DKA and HHS also differs with respect to timing of fluid and insulin initiation. There is considerable overlap but important differences between the UK and USA guidelines for the management of DKA and HHS. Further research needs to be done to delineate a unifying diagnostic and treatment protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketan K Dhatariya
- Elsie Bertram Diabetes Centre, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Colney Lane, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7UY, UK.
- University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.
| | - Priyathama Vellanki
- Division of Endo, Metabolism & Lipids, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Fayfman M, Pasquel FJ, Umpierrez GE. Management of Hyperglycemic Crises: Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State. Med Clin North Am 2017; 101:587-606. [PMID: 28372715 PMCID: PMC6535398 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2016.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) are the most serious and life-threatening hyperglycemic emergencies in diabetes. DKA is more common in young people with type 1 diabetes and HHS in adult and elderly patients with type 2 diabetes. Features of the 2 disorders with ketoacidosis and hyperosmolality may coexist. Both are characterized by insulinopenia and severe hyperglycemia. Early diagnosis and management are paramount. Treatment is aggressive rehydration, insulin therapy, electrolyte replacement, and treatment of underlying precipitating events. This article reviews the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of hyperglycemic emergencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Fayfman
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, 69 Jesse Hill Jr. Drive Southeast, 2nd Floor, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Francisco J Pasquel
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, 69 Jesse Hill Jr. Drive Southeast, 2nd Floor, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, 69 Jesse Hill Jr. Drive Southeast, 2nd Floor, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA.
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Cardoso L, Vicente N, Rodrigues D, Gomes L, Carrilho F. Controversies in the management of hyperglycaemic emergencies in adults with diabetes. Metabolism 2017; 68:43-54. [PMID: 28183452 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2016.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Hyperglycaemic emergencies are associated with significant morbi-mortality and healthcare costs. Management consists on fluid replacement, insulin therapy, and electrolyte correction. However, some areas of patient management remain debatable. In patients without respiratory failure or haemodynamic instability, arterial and venous pH and bicarbonate measurements are comparable. Fluid choice varies upon replenishment phase and patient's condition. If patient is severely hypovolaemic, normal saline solution should be the first option. However, if patient has mild/moderate dehydration, fluid choice must take in consideration sodium concentration. Insulin therapy should be guided by β-hydroxybutyrate normalization and not by blood glucose. Variations of conventional insulin infusion protocols emerged recently. Priming dose of insulin may not be required, and fixed rate insulin infusion represents the best option to suppress hepatic glucose production, ketogenesis, and lipolysis. Concomitant administration of basal insulin analogues with regular insulin infusion accelerates ketoacidosis resolution and prevents rebound hyperglycaemia. Simpler protocols using subcutaneous rapid-acting insulin analogues for mild/moderate diabetic ketoacidosis treatment have proven to be safe and effective, but further studies are required to confirm these results. Treatment with bicarbonate, phosphate, and low-molecular-weight heparin is still disputable, and randomized controlled trials are urgently needed to optimize patient management and decrease the morbi-mortality of hyperglycaemic emergencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Cardoso
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Vicente
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Dírcea Rodrigues
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Leonor Gomes
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Francisco Carrilho
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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Umpierrez G, Korytkowski M. Diabetic emergencies - ketoacidosis, hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state and hypoglycaemia. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2016; 12:222-32. [PMID: 26893262 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2016.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) and hypoglycaemia are serious complications of diabetes mellitus that require prompt recognition, diagnosis and treatment. DKA and HHS are characterized by insulinopaenia and severe hyperglycaemia; clinically, these two conditions differ only by the degree of dehydration and the severity of metabolic acidosis. The overall mortality recorded among children and adults with DKA is <1%. Mortality among patients with HHS is ~10-fold higher than that associated with DKA. The prognosis and outcome of patients with DKA or HHS are determined by the severity of dehydration, the presence of comorbidities and age >60 years. The estimated annual cost of hospital treatment for patients experiencing hyperglycaemic crises in the USA exceeds US$2 billion. Hypoglycaemia is a frequent and serious adverse effect of antidiabetic therapy that is associated with both immediate and delayed adverse clinical outcomes, as well as increased economic costs. Inpatients who develop hypoglycaemia are likely to experience a long duration of hospital stay and increased mortality. This Review describes the clinical presentation, precipitating causes, diagnosis and acute management of these diabetic emergencies, including a discussion of practical strategies for their prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Umpierrez
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Emory University School of Medicine, 49 Jesse Hill Jr Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, USA
| | - Mary Korytkowski
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pittsburgh, 3601 Fifth Avenue, Suite 560, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
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Nyenwe EA, Kitabchi AE. The evolution of diabetic ketoacidosis: An update of its etiology, pathogenesis and management. Metabolism 2016; 65:507-21. [PMID: 26975543 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2015.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The prognosis of diabetic ketoacidosis has undergone incredibly remarkable evolution since the discovery of insulin nearly a century ago. The incidence and economic burden of diabetic ketoacidosis have continued to rise but its mortality has decreased to less than 1% in good centers. Improved outcome is attributable to a better understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease and widespread application of treatment guidelines. In this review, we present the changes that have occurred over the years, highlighting the evidence behind the recommendations that have improved outcome. We begin with a discussion of the precipitants and pathogenesis of DKA as a prelude to understanding the rationale for the recommendations. A brief review of ketosis-prone type 2 diabetes, an update relating to the diagnosis of DKA and a future perspective are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebenezer A Nyenwe
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 920 Madison Ave., Suite 300A, Memphis, TN 38163.
| | - Abbas E Kitabchi
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 920 Madison Ave., Suite 300A, Memphis, TN 38163
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Pasquel FJ, Umpierrez GE. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state: a historic review of the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. Diabetes Care 2014; 37:3124-31. [PMID: 25342831 PMCID: PMC4207202 DOI: 10.2337/dc14-0984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is the most serious acute hyperglycemic emergency in patients with type 2 diabetes. von Frerichs and Dreschfeld described the first cases of HHS in the 1880s in patients with an "unusual diabetic coma" characterized by severe hyperglycemia and glycosuria in the absence of Kussmaul breathing, with a fruity breath odor or positive acetone test in the urine. Current diagnostic HHS criteria include a plasma glucose level >600 mg/dL and increased effective plasma osmolality >320 mOsm/kg in the absence of ketoacidosis. The incidence of HHS is estimated to be <1% of hospital admissions of patients with diabetes. The reported mortality is between 10 and 20%, which is about 10 times higher than the mortality rate in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Despite the severity of this condition, no prospective, randomized studies have determined best treatment strategies in patients with HHS, and its management has largely been extrapolated from studies of patients with DKA. There are many unresolved questions that need to be addressed in prospective clinical trials regarding the pathogenesis and treatment of pediatric and adult patients with HHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Pasquel
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
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Efficacy and Safety of Weight-based Insulin Glargine Dose Titration Regimen Compared With Glucose Level- and Current Dose-based Regimens in Hospitalized Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Controlled Study. Clin Ther 2014; 36:1269-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2014.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Goguen J, Gilbert J. Urgences hyperglycémiques chez l’adulte. Can J Diabetes 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2013.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Barski L, Kezerle L, Zeller L, Zektser M, Jotkowitz A. New approaches to the use of insulin in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Eur J Intern Med 2013; 24:213-6. [PMID: 23395363 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2013.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is one of the most common and serious acute complications of diabetes and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. In the last decade the mortality rate from DKA has declined because of greater recognition and improvements in its management. The current available guidelines state that the most effective means of insulin delivery during DKA is a continuous infusion of regular insulin, usually referred to as continuous low-dose insulin infusion. However, the cost of this treatment is usually quite high, because patients are required to be admitted to an intensive care unit in order to be monitored closely. New analogs of human insulin that have a rapid onset of action have become available in the past decade and represent potential alternatives to the use of regular insulin in the treatment of DKA. In several trials it has been demonstrated that the use of subcutaneous rapid-acting insulin analogs represents a safe, cost-effective and technically simpler treatment that precludes intensive care unit admission without significant differences in outcome in the management of patients with mild to moderate, uncomplicated DKA. The long-acting insulin analog may have a role in facilitating the transition from continuous intravenous insulin infusion to subcutaneous maintenance therapy in patients with DKA. This avoids rebound hyperglycaemia and ketogenesis when intravenous insulin is stopped and may avoid excess length of stay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid Barski
- Department of Internal Medicine F, Soroka University Medical Center, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Diabetic ketoacidosis in children continues to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in developing economies as a result of malnutrition, a high rate of infections, and delay in seeking timely medical care. Malnutrition also increases the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis-related complications. The objective of this study was to assess the nutritional status of patients presenting with diabetic ketoacidosis and correlate it with the incidence of complications at presentation and those encountered during the course of illness. DESIGN Prospective study. SETTING Pediatric emergency and intensive care units, Advanced Pediatrics Centre, PGIMER, Chandigarh, India. PATIENTS Thirty-three children between 1 month and 12 yrs of age presenting with diabetic ketoacidosis between July 2008 and June 2009 were enrolled consecutively and assessed for nutritional status by anthropometric parameters (body weight, crown-heel length/height, mid-upper arm circumference, triceps and subscapular skin fold thicknesses), biochemical parameters (serum albumin, zinc, magnesium, vitamin A levels), and preillness dietary history (by pretested Food Frequency Questionnaire). Patients were classified as malnourished or normally nourished based on the weight for age criteria matched for Indian standards. The incidence of complications (electrolyte imbalances, hypoglycemia, sepsis, cerebral edema, etc.) and outcome in terms of survival or death in both the groups were compared with Student's t-test for parametric data, Mann-Whitney U test for nonparametric data, and chi-square test for categorical variables. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Anthropometric assessment showed that 11 of 33 (33.3%) were malnourished. Preillness dietary history revealed that 16 (48.5%) were calorie- and protein-deficient (known diabetic n = 7; new onset n = 9), whereas 11 (33.3%) were only calorie-deficient (known diabetic n = 2). Hypoalbuminemia was seen in 21 (63.6%), hypovitaminosis A in eight (24.2%), and low zinc levels in three (9%). The malnourished and normally nourished groups were similar with respect to demographics, precipitating factors, severity of diabetic ketoacidosis, treatment received, and outcome. However, the incidence and severity of therapy-related hypokalemia (100% vs. 72.7%; p = .05) and hypoglycemia (63.6 vs. 13.6%; p = .004) were significantly higher in the former as compared with the latter. The mean ± SD admission serum potassium levels were similar in both the groups (3.4 ± 0.8 mEq/L in the malnourished vs. 3.5 ± 0.7 mEq/L in the normally nourished) with the malnourished group showing a significant fall at 6 hrs after start the of diabetic ketoacidosis protocol (2.8 ± 0.8 mEq/L vs. 3.6 ± 0.7 mEq/L; p = .033), although the mean rate and dose of insulin infusion were similar. The fall in blood glucose (mean ± SD mg/dL) at 12, 24, and 36 hrs after onset of the diabetic ketoacidosis protocol was also significantly greater in the malnourished group as compared with the normally nourished diabetic ketoacidosis (195 ± 69.1 and 272.61 ± 96.3, p = .02; 171 ± 58.5 and 257 ± 96.3, p = .05; and 153.75 ± 49.6 and 241.71 ± 76.3, p = .04, respectively). The incidence of hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, cerebral edema, renal failure, sepsis, and septic shock was similar in both the groups. There were two deaths, both resulting from complicating cerebral edema and renal failure and unrelated to the nutritional status of the patients. CONCLUSIONS The incidence and severity of therapy-related hypokalemia and hypoglycemia were significantly higher in the malnourished as compared to the normally nourished diabetic ketoacidosis. Other diabetic ketoacidosis-related complications and outcome were similar in both the groups.
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Nyenwe EA, Kitabchi AE. Evidence-based management of hyperglycemic emergencies in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2011; 94:340-51. [PMID: 21978840 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2011.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The hyperglycemic emergencies, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) are potentially fatal complications of uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. The incidence of DKA and the economic burden of its treatment continue to rise, but its associated mortality rate which was uniformly high has diminished remarkably over the years. This Improvement in outcome is largely due to better understanding of the pathogenesis of hyperglycemic emergencies and the application of evidence-based guidelines in the treatment of patients. In this article, we present a critical review of the evidence behind the recommendations that have resulted in the improved prognosis of patients with hyperglycemic crises. A succinct discussion of the pathophysiology and important etiological factors in DKA and HHS are provided as a prerequisite for understanding the rationale for the effective therapeutic maneuvers employed in these acute severe metabolic conditions. The evidence for the role of preventive measures in DKA and HHS is also discussed. The unanswered questions and future research needs are also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebenezer A Nyenwe
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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Devi R, Selvakumar G, Clark L, Downer C, Braithwaite SS. A dose-defining insulin algorithm for attainment and maintenance of glycemic targets during therapy of hyperglycemic crises. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.2217/dmt.11.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Denroche HC, Levi J, Wideman RD, Sequeira RM, Huynh FK, Covey SD, Kieffer TJ. Leptin therapy reverses hyperglycemia in mice with streptozotocin-induced diabetes, independent of hepatic leptin signaling. Diabetes 2011; 60:1414-23. [PMID: 21464443 PMCID: PMC3292314 DOI: 10.2337/db10-0958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Leptin therapy has been found to reverse hyperglycemia and prevent mortality in several rodent models of type 1 diabetes. Yet the mechanism of leptin-mediated reversal of hyperglycemia has not been fully defined. The liver is a key organ regulating glucose metabolism and is also a target of leptin action. Thus we hypothesized that exogenous leptin administered to mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes reverses hyperglycemia through direct action on hepatocytes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS After the induction of diabetes in mice with a high dose of STZ, recombinant mouse leptin was delivered at a supraphysiological dose for 14 days by an osmotic pump implant. We characterized the effect of leptin administration in C57Bl/6J mice with STZ-induced diabetes and then examined whether leptin therapy could reverse STZ-induced hyperglycemia in mice in which hepatic leptin signaling was specifically disrupted. RESULTS Hyperleptinemia reversed hyperglycemia and hyperketonemia in diabetic C57Bl/6J mice and dramatically improved glucose tolerance. These effects were associated with reduced plasma glucagon and growth hormone levels and dramatically enhanced insulin sensitivity, without changes in glucose uptake by skeletal muscle. Leptin therapy also ameliorated STZ-induced hyperglycemia and hyperketonemia in mice with disrupted hepatic leptin signaling to a similar extent as observed in wild-type littermates with STZ-induced diabetes. CONCLUSIONS These observations reveal that hyperleptinemia reverses the symptoms of STZ-induced diabetes in mice and that this action does not require direct leptin signaling in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather C. Denroche
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jasna Levi
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rhonda D. Wideman
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Roveena M. Sequeira
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Frank K. Huynh
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Scott D. Covey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Timothy J. Kieffer
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Corresponding author: Timothy J. Kieffer,
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Evaluation of a simple management protocol for hyperglycaemic crises using intramuscular insulin in a resource-limited setting. DIABETES & METABOLISM 2009; 35:404-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diabet.2009.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 04/06/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas E Kitabchi
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
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36
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Barone B, Rodacki M, Cenci MCP, Zajdenverg L, Milech A, Oliveira JEPD. [Diabetic ketoacidosis in adults--update of an old complication]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 51:1434-47. [PMID: 18209885 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-27302007000900005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2007] [Accepted: 06/22/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis is an acute complication of Diabetes Mellitus characterized by hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis, dehydration, and ketosis, in patients with profound insulin deficiency. It occurs predominantly in patients with type 1 diabetes and is frequently precipitated by infections, insulin withdrawal or undiagnosed type 1 diabetes. The authors review its pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria and treatment options in adults, as well as its complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Barone
- Instituto Estadual de Diabetes e Endocrinologia Luiz Capriglione, Instituto Estadual de Diabetes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ
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Kitabchi AE, Murphy MB, Spencer J, Matteri R, Karas J. Is a priming dose of insulin necessary in a low-dose insulin protocol for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis? Diabetes Care 2008; 31:2081-5. [PMID: 18694978 PMCID: PMC2571050 DOI: 10.2337/dc08-0509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of an insulin priming dose with a continuous insulin infusion versus two continuous infusions without a priming dose. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS This prospective randomized protocol used three insulin therapy methods: 1) load group using a priming dose of 0.07 units of regular insulin per kg body weight followed by a dose of 0.07 unit x kg(-1) x h(-1) i.v. in 12 patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA); 2) no load group using an infusion of regular insulin of 0.07 unit . kg body weight(-1) x h(-1) without a loading dose in 12 patients with DKA, and 3) twice no load group using an infusion of regular insulin of 0.14 x kg(-1) x h(-1) without a loading dose in 13 patients with DKA. Outcome was based on the effects of insulin therapy on biochemical and hormonal changes during treatment and recovery of DKA. RESULTS The load group reached a peak in free insulin value (460 microU/ml) within 5 min and plateaued at 88 microU/ml in 60 min. The twice no load group reached a peak (200 microU/ml) at 45 min. The no load group reached a peak (60 microU/ml) in 60-120 min. Five patients in the no load group required supplemental insulin doses to decrease initial glucose levels by 10%; patients in the twice no load and load groups did not. Except for these differences, times to reach glucose <or=250 mg/dl, pH >or=7.3, and HCO(3)(-) >or=15 mEq/l did not differ significantly among the three groups. CONCLUSIONS A priming dose in low-dose insulin therapy in patients with DKA is unnecessary if an adequate dose of regular insulin of 0.14 unit x kg body weight(-1) x h(-1) (about 10 units/h in a 70-kg patient) is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas E Kitabchi
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Sciences, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
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Goyal N, Miller JB, Sankey SS, Mossallam U. Utility of initial bolus insulin in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. J Emerg Med 2008; 38:422-7. [PMID: 18514472 DOI: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2007] [Revised: 05/27/2007] [Accepted: 11/02/2007] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Current guidelines for treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) recommend administration of an intravenous bolus dose of insulin followed by a continuous infusion. This study was designed to investigate whether the initial bolus dose is of significant benefit to adult patients with DKA and if it is associated with increased complications. This was a non-concurrent, prospective observational cohort study of adult patients who presented with DKA in a 12-month period. Charts were divided into two groups depending on whether they received an initial bolus dose of insulin. Data on glucose levels, anion gap (AG), intravenous fluid administration (IVF), and length of stay (LOS) were collected. Primary outcome was hypoglycemia (need for administration of 50% dextrose). Of 157 charts, 78 received a bolus of insulin and were designated the treatment group, the remaining 79 formed the control group. Groups were similar at baseline and received equivalent IVF and insulin drips. There were no statistically significant differences in the incidence of hypoglycemia (6% vs. 1%, respectively, p = 0.12), rate of change of glucose (60 vs. 56 mg/dL/h, respectively, p = 0.54) or AG (1.9 vs. 1.9 mEq/L/h, respectively, p = 0.66), LOS in the Emergency Department (8 vs. 7 h, respectively, p = 0.37) or hospital (5.6 vs. 5.9 days, p = 0.81). Equivalence testing revealed no clinically relevant differences in IVF change, rate of change of glucose, or AG. Administration of an initial bolus dose of insulin was not associated with significant benefit to patients with DKA and demonstrated equivalent changes in clinically relevant endpoints when compared to patients not administered the bolus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Goyal
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA
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Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Fisher JN, Murphy MB, Stentz FB. Thirty years of personal experience in hyperglycemic crises: diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93:1541-52. [PMID: 18270259 PMCID: PMC2386681 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2007-2577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) cause major morbidity and significant mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus. For more than 30 yr, our group, in a series of prospective, randomized clinical studies, has investigated the pathogenesis and evolving strategies of the treatment of hyperglycemic crises. This paper summarizes the results of these prospective studies on the management and pathophysiology of DKA. SETTING Our earliest studies evaluated the comparative efficacy of low-dose vs. pharmacological amounts of insulin and the use of low-dose therapy by various routes in adults and later in children. Subsequent studies evaluated phosphate and bicarbonate therapy, lipid metabolism, ketosis-prone type 2 patients, and use of rapid-acting insulin analogs as well as leptin status, cardiac risk factors, proinflammatory cytokines, and the mechanism of activation of T lymphocytes in hyperglycemic crises. MAIN OUTCOME The information garnered from these studies resulted in the creation of the 2001 American Diabetes Association (ADA) technical review on DKA and HHS as well as the ADA Position and Consensus Paper on the therapy for hyperglycemic crises. CONCLUSIONS Areas of future research include prospective randomized studies to do the following: 1) establish the efficacy of bicarbonate therapy in DKA for a pH less than 6.9; 2) establish the need for a bolus insulin dose in the initial therapy of DKA; 3) determine the pathophysiological mechanisms for the absence of ketosis in HHS; 4) investigate the reasons for elevated proinflammatory cytokines and cardiovascular risk factors; and 5) evaluate the efficacy and cost benefit of using sc regular insulin vs. more expensive insulin analogs on the general ward for the treatment of DKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas E Kitabchi
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 920 Madison Avenue #909, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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40
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Abstract
The article ‘Diabetic ketoacidosis: principles of management’ by Sharma and Hadebe (vol 68(3), 2007, p. 184) contains several discrepancies.
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Henriksen OM, Prahl JB, Røder ME, Svendsen OL. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in adults in Denmark: a national survey. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007; 77:113-9. [PMID: 17126447 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2006.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2006] [Accepted: 10/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to investigate management routines of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in adult patients in departments of internal medicine in Denmark and to relate current routines of treatment to available evidence. A questionnaire requesting information on management routines of DKA was sent to all departments of internal medicine in Denmark responsible of managing DKA. Fifty-nine departments (88%) returned the questionnaire and/or a copy of their management protocol. At 19 departments (32%), all patients with DKA were managed in an intensive care unit (ICU). Twenty-four different insulin regimens and 21 fluid protocols were identified. Routines of insulin therapy varied in terms of doses and routes of administration. Fifty-eight departments (97%) used isotonic saline for hydration. Potassium supplements were administered as a separate infusion of either isotonic potassium-sodium-chloride (83%) or isotonic potassium-chloride (10%). Recommended volumes to be administered during the first 8h of treatment varied significantly (median 4800ml, range 3750-7700ml). Use of bicarbonate was endorsed by 80%. This study shows significant variations in management routines of DKA in Denmark. In many cases, the treatment routines employed are not supported by evidence from clinical trials. We recommend implementation of national and/or European guidelines for management of DKA in adult patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto M Henriksen
- Endocrine Section, Department of Internal Medicine I, Bispebjerg Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, Copenhagen NV, Denmark.
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Umpierrez GE, Palacio A, Smiley D. Sliding scale insulin use: myth or insanity? Am J Med 2007; 120:563-7. [PMID: 17602924 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2006] [Accepted: 05/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Inpatient hyperglycemia in people with or without diabetes is associated with an increased risk of complications and mortality, a longer hospital stay, a higher admission rate to the intensive care unit, and higher hospitalization costs. Despite increasing evidence that supports intensive glycemic control in hospitalized patients, blood glucose control continues to be challenging, and sliding scale insulin coverage, a practice associated with limited therapeutic success, continues to be the most frequent insulin regimen in hospitalized patients. Sliding scale insulin has been in use for more than 80 years without much evidence to support its use as the standard of care. Several studies have revealed evidence of poor glycemic control and deleterious effects in sliding scale insulin use. To understand its wide use and acceptance, we reviewed the origin, advantages, and disadvantages of sliding scale insulin in the inpatient setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Department of Medicine/Division of Endocrinology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Ga 30303, USA
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44
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Kitabchi AE, Nyenwe EA. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus: diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2006; 35:725-51, viii. [PMID: 17127143 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2006.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) potentially are fatal but largely preventable acute metabolic conditions of uncontrolled diabetes, the incidence of which continues to increase. Mortality from DKA has declined remarkably over the years because of better understanding of its pathophysiology and treatment. The mortality rate of HHS remains alarmingly high, however, owing to older age and mode of presentation of patients and associated comorbid conditions. DKA and HHS also are economically burdensome; therefore, any resources invested in their prevention would be rewarding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas E Kitabchi
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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45
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Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, Kreisberg RA. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes: a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2006; 29:2739-48. [PMID: 17130218 DOI: 10.2337/dc06-9916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abbas E Kitabchi
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 956 Court Ave., Suite D334, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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46
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Schoeffler JM, Rice DAK, Gresham DG. 70/30 Insulin Algorithm Versus Sliding Scale Insulin. Ann Pharmacother 2005; 39:1606-10. [PMID: 16091416 DOI: 10.1345/aph.1e661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The medical literature supports the fact that sliding scale dosing of insulin is an ineffective means to control blood glucose concentrations. Despite this, many clinicians still use sliding scale insulin (SSI) regimens. A better tool for controlling hyperglycemia is clearly needed. OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of an algorithm using 70/30 insulin with traditional SSI dosing for glycemic control in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: A prospective, cohort, comparative trial was conducted at a 644-bed, 2-hospital, regional referral health system. Patients were screened for enrollment based on orders received in the pharmacy for sliding scale dosing of insulin. Patients were treated either following an algorithm using 70/30 insulin twice daily or traditional SSI dosing as written by the prescribing physician. RESULTS: Twenty patients with type 2 diabetes were involved in this pilot trial: 10 were treated with the 70/30 insulin algorithm and 10 received a physician-determined traditional SSI regimen. Patients treated based on the 70/30 insulin algorithm achieved better glycemic control (p = 0.042). No difference between the groups was detected in the average number of insulin units administered, insulin injections, or days patients spent on their respective insulin regimens. CONCLUSIONS: Glycemic control with the 70/30 insulin algorithm was superior to traditional SSI dosing.
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Della Manna T, Steinmetz L, Campos PR, Farhat SCL, Schvartsman C, Kuperman H, Setian N, Damiani D. Subcutaneous use of a fast-acting insulin analog: an alternative treatment for pediatric patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care 2005; 28:1856-61. [PMID: 16043723 DOI: 10.2337/diacare.28.8.1856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To look for technical simplification and economic efficiency in the treatment of pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) with subcutaneous use of the fast-acting insulin analog (lispro) and compare its use with regular intravenous insulin treatment. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In this controlled clinical trial from June 2001 to June 2003, we randomized 60 episodes of DKA with a blood glucose level > or = 16.6 mmol/l (300 mg/dl), venous pH <7.3 and/or bicarbonate <15 mmol/l, or ketonuria greater than + +. Of the 60 episodes, 30 were treated with subcutaneous lispro (0.15 units/kg) given every 2 h (lispro group) and the other 30 cases received continuous intravenous regular insulin (0.1 unit x kg(-1) x h(-1); CIRI group). Volume deficit was repaired with 10-ml/kg aliquots of 0.9% sodium chloride. Laboratory monitoring included hourly bedside capillary glucose, venous blood gas, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and electrolytes. Plasma blood glucose levels were measured on admission, 2 h after admission, when capillary blood glucose reached < or = 13.8 mmol/l (250 mg/dl), and 6, 12, and 24 h thereafter. RESULTS Capillary glucose levels decreased by 2.9 and 2.6 mmol x l(-1) x h(-1) in the lispro and CIRI groups, respectively, but blood glucose fluctuated at different time intervals. In the CIRI group, metabolic acidosis and ketosis resolved in the first 6-h period after capillary glucose reached 13.8 mmol/l, whereas in the lispro group, they resolved in the next 6-h interval; however, both groups met DKA recovery criteria without complications. CONCLUSIONS DKA treatment with a subcutaneous fast-acting insulin analog represents a cost-effective and technically simplified procedure that precludes intensive care unit admission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thais Della Manna
- Pediatric Endocrine Unit, São Paulo University Medical School, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Haas RM, Hoffman AR. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis: should mode of insulin administration dictate use of intensive care facilities? Am J Med 2004; 117:357-8. [PMID: 15336586 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Umpierrez GE, Latif K, Stoever J, Cuervo R, Park L, Freire AX, E Kitabchi A. Efficacy of subcutaneous insulin lispro versus continuous intravenous regular insulin for the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med 2004; 117:291-6. [PMID: 15336577 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2003] [Revised: 05/21/2004] [Accepted: 05/21/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare the efficacy and safety of subcutaneous insulin lispro with that of a standard low-dose intravenous infusion protocol of regular insulin in patients with uncomplicated diabetic ketoacidosis. METHODS In this prospective, randomized open trial, 20 patients treated with subcutaneous insulin lispro were managed in regular medicine wards (n=10) or an intermediate care unit (n=10), while 20 patients treated with the intravenous protocol were managed in the intensive care unit. Patients treated with subcutaneous lispro received an initial injection of 0.3 unit/kg followed by 0.1 unit/kg/h until correction of hyperglycemia (blood glucose levels <250 mg/dL), followed by 0.05 to 0.1 unit/kg/h until resolution of diabetic ketoacidosis (pH > or =7.3, bicarbonate > or =18 mEq/L). Patients treated with intravenous regular insulin received an initial bolus of 0.1 unit/kg, followed by an infusion of 0.1 unit/kg/h until correction of hyperglycemia, then 0.05 to 0.1 unit/kg/h until resolution of diabetic ketoacidosis. RESULTS Mean (+/- SD) admission biochemical parameters in patients treated with subcutaneous lispro (glucose: 674 +/- 154 mg/dL; bicarbonate: 9.2 +/- 4 mEq/L; pH: 7.17 +/- 0.10) were similar to values in patients treated with intravenous insulin (glucose: 611 +/- 264 mg/dL; bicarbonate: 10.6 +/- 4 mEq/L; pH: 7.19 +/- 0.08). The duration of treatment until correction of hyperglycemia (7 +/- 3 hours vs. 7 +/- 2 hours) and resolution of ketoacidosis (10 +/- 3 hours vs. 11 +/- 4 hours) in patients treated with subcutaneous lispro was not different than in patients treated with intravenous regular insulin. There were no deaths in either group, and there were no differences in the length of hospital stay, amount of insulin until resolution of diabetic ketoacidosis, or in the rate of hypoglycemia between treatment groups. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in the intensive care unit was associated with 39% higher hospitalization charges than was treatment with subcutaneous lispro in a non-intensive care setting ($14,429 +/- $5243 vs. $8801 +/- $5549, P <0.01). CONCLUSION Treatment of adult patients who have uncomplicated diabetic ketoacidosis with subcutaneous lispro every hour in a non-intensive care setting may be safe and more cost-effective than treatment with intravenous regular insulin in the intensive care unit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo E Umpierrez
- Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
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Stentz FB, Umpierrez GE, Cuervo R, Kitabchi AE. Proinflammatory cytokines, markers of cardiovascular risks, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation in patients with hyperglycemic crises. Diabetes 2004; 53:2079-86. [PMID: 15277389 DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.53.8.2079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Acute and chronic hyperglycemia are proinflammatory states, but the status of proinflammatory cytokines and markers of oxidative stress and cardiovascular risks is not known in hyperglycemic crises of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and nonketotic hyperglycemia (NKH). We studied 20 lean and 28 obese patients with DKA, 10 patients with NKH, and 12 lean and 12 obese nondiabetic control subjects. We measured 1) proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin [IL]-6, IL1-beta, and IL-8), 2) markers of cardiovascular risk (C-reactive protein [CRP], homocysteine, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 [PAI-1]), 3) products of reactive oxygen species (ROS; thiobarbituric acid [TBA]-reacting material, and dichlorofluorescein [DCF]), and 4) cortisol, growth hormone (GH), and free fatty acids (FFAs) on admission (before insulin therapy) and after insulin therapy and resolution of hyperglycemia and/or ketoacidosis. Results were compared with lean and obese control subjects. Circulating levels of cytokines, TBA, DCF, PAI-1, FFAs, cortisol, and GH on admission were significantly increased two- to fourfold in patients with hyperglycemic crises compared with control subjects, and they returned to normal levels after insulin treatment and resolution of hyperglycemic crises. Changes in CRP and homocysteine in response to insulin therapy did not reach control levels after resolution of hyperglycemia. We conclude that DKA and NKH are associated with elevation of proinflammatory cytokines, ROS, and cardiovascular risk factors in the absence of obvious infection or cardiovascular pathology. Return of these values to normal levels with insulin therapy demonstrates a robust anti-inflammatory effect of insulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frankie B Stentz
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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