The transcription factor Pitx2 positions the embryonic axis and regulates twinning

Regulation of long-range BMP gradients and embryonic polarity by propagation of local calcium-firing activity

Many amniote vertebrate species including humans can form identical twins from a single embryo, but this only occurs rarely. It has been suggested that the primitive-streak-forming embryonic region emits signals that inhibit streak formation elsewhere but the signals involved, how they are transmitted and how they act has not been elucidated. Here we show that short tracks of calcium firing activity propagate through extraembryonic tissue via gap junctions and prevent ectopic primitive streak formation in chick embryos. Cross-regulation of calcium activity and an inhibitor of primitive streak formation (Bone Morphogenetic Protein, BMP) via NF-κB and NFAT establishes a long-range BMP gradient spanning the embryo. This mechanism explains how embryos of widely different sizes can maintain positional information that determines embryo polarity. We provide evidence for similar mechanisms in two different human embryo models and in Drosophila, suggesting an ancient evolutionary origin.

Emergence of a left-right symmetric body plan in vertebrate embryos

External bilateral symmetry is a prevalent feature in vertebrates, which emerges during early embryonic development. To begin with, vertebrate embryos are largely radially symmetric before transitioning to bilaterally symmetry, after which, morphogenesis of various bilateral tissues (e.g somites, otic vesicle, limb bud), and structures (e.g palate, jaw) ensue. While a significant amount of work has probed the mechanisms behind symmetry breaking in the left-right axis leading to asymmetric positioning of internal organs, little is known about how bilateral tissues emerge at the same time with the same shape and size and at the same position on the two sides of the embryo. By discussing emergence of symmetry in many bilateral tissues and structures across vertebrate model systems, we highlight that understanding symmetry establishment is largely an open field, which will provide deep insights into fundamental problems in developmental biology for decades to come.

Association of Novel C319T Variant of PITX2 Gene 3'UTR Region With Reproductive Performance in Awassi Sheep

Several genes influence sheep's reproductive performance, among them the paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 2 (PITX2) gene. Thus, this study aimed to examine whether the variability within the PITX2 gene is associated with the reproductive performance of Awassi ewes. A total of 123 single-progeny ewes and 109 twin ewes were used to extract genomic DNA. An amplicon of 4 sequence fragments from exons 2, 4, 5 (upstream portion), and 5 (downstream portion) of the PITX2 gene was generated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 228, 304, 381, and 382 bp, respectively. Three genotypes of 382 bp amplicons were identified: CC, CT, and TT. Sequence analysis revealed a novel mutation in the CT genotype 319C > T. Statistical analysis revealed that single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 319C > T was associated with reproductive performance. Single-nucleotide polymorphism 319C > T-carrying ewes had significantly (P ⩽ .01) lower litter sizes, twinning rates, lambing rates, and more days to lambing than those carrying CT and CC genotypes. Based on a logistic regression analysis, it was confirmed that the 319C > T SNP decreased litter size. Ewes with TT genotype produced fewer lambs than ewes with CT and CC genotypes. According to these results, the variant 319C> T SNP negatively affects the reproductive performance of Awassi sheep. Ewes carrying the 319C > T SNP have a lower litter size and are less prolific than those without the SNP.

Gastrulation and Body Axes Formation: A Molecular Concept and Its Clinical Correlates

During the third week of human pregnancy, an embryo transforms from two germinal disc layers of hypoblast and epiblast to three germinal layers of endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. Gastrulation is a complex process that includes cellular mobility, morphogenesis and cell signalling, as well as chemical morphogenic gradients, transcription factors and differential gene expression. During gastrulation, many signalling channels coordinate individual cell actions in precise time and location. These channels control cell proliferation, shape, fate and migration to the correct sites. Subsequently, the anteroposterior (AP), dorsoventral (DV) and left-right (LR) body axes are formed before and during gastrulation via these signalling regulation signals. Hence, the anomalies in gastrulation caused by insults to certain molecular pathways manifest as a wide range of body axes-related disorders. This article outlines the formation of body axes during gastrulation and the anomalies as well as the clinical implications.

The extra-embryonic area opaca plays a role in positioning the primitive streak of the early chick embryo

Classical studies have established that the marginal zone, a ring of extra-embryonic epiblast immediately surrounding the embryonic epiblast (area pellucida) of the chick embryo, is important in setting embryonic polarity by positioning the primitive streak, the site of gastrulation. The more external extra-embryonic region (area opaca) was thought to have only nutritive and support functions. Using experimental embryology approaches, this study reveals three separable functions for this outer region. First, juxtaposition of the area opaca directly onto the area pellucida induces a new marginal zone from the latter; this induced domain is entirely posterior in character. Second, ablation and grafting experiments using an isolated anterior half of the blastoderm and pieces of area opaca suggest that the area opaca can influence the polarity of the adjacent marginal zone. Finally, we show that the loss of the ability of such isolated anterior half-embryos to regulate (re-establish polarity spontaneously) at the early primitive streak stage can be rescued by replacing the area opaca by one from a younger stage. These results uncover new roles of chick extra-embryonic tissues in early development.

Summary: Two adjacent extra-embryonic tissues, the area opaca and the marginal zone, interact to influence the polarity of the early chick embryo.

'Neighbourhood watch' model: embryonic epiblast cells assess positional information in relation to their neighbours

In many developing and regenerating systems, tissue pattern is established through gradients of informative morphogens, but we know little about how cells interpret these. Using experimental manipulation of early chick embryos, including misexpression of an inducer (VG1 or ACTIVIN) and an inhibitor (BMP4), we test two alternative models for their ability to explain how the site of primitive streak formation is positioned relative to the rest of the embryo. In one model, cells read morphogen concentrations cell-autonomously. In the other, cells sense changes in morphogen status relative to their neighbourhood. We find that only the latter model can account for the experimental results, including some counter-intuitive predictions. This mechanism (which we name the ‘neighbourhood watch’ model) illuminates the classic ‘French Flag Problem’ and how positional information is interpreted by a sheet of cells in a large developing system.

Summary: In a large developing system, the chick embryo before gastrulation, cells may interpret gradients of positional signals relative to their neighbours to position the primitive streak, establishing bilateral symmetry.

Expression patterns of signalling molecules and transcription factors in the early rabbit embryo and their significance for modelling amniote axis formation

The anterior-posterior axis is a central element of the body plan and, during amniote gastrulation, forms through several transient domains with specific morphogenetic activities. In the chick, experimentally proven activity of signalling molecules and transcription factors lead to the concept of a 'global positioning system' for initial axis formation whereas in the (mammotypical) rabbit embryo, a series of morphological or molecular domains are part of a putative 'three-anchor-point model'. Because circular expression patterns of genes involved in axis formation exist in both amniote groups prior to, and during, gastrulation and may thus be suited to reconcile these models, the expression patterns of selected genes known in the chick, namely the ones coding for the transcription factors eomes and tbx6, the signalling molecule wnt3 and the wnt inhibitor pkdcc, were analysed in the rabbit embryonic disc using in situ hybridisation and placing emphasis on their germ layer location. Peripheral wnt3 and eomes expression in all layers is found initially to be complementary to central pkdcc expression in the hypoblast during early axis formation. Pkdcc then appears - together with a posterior-anterior gradient in wnt3 and eomes domains - in the epiblast posteriorly before the emerging primitive streak is marked by pkdcc and tbx6 at its anterior and posterior extremities, respectively. Conserved circular expression patterns deduced from some of this data may point to shared mechanisms in amniote axis formation while the reshaping of localised gene expression patterns is discussed as part of the 'three-anchor-point model' for establishing the mammalian body plan.

Arsenic suppresses GDF1 expression via ROS-dependent downregulation of specificity protein 1

Inorganic arsenic, an environmental contaminant, has adverse health outcomes. Our previous studies showed that arsenic causes abnormal cardiac development in zebrafish embryos by downregulating Dvr1/GDF1 expression and that folic acid protects against these effects. However, the mechanism by which arsenic represses Dvr1/GDF1 expression remains unknown. Herein, we demonstrate that specificity protein 1 (Sp1) acts as a transcriptional activator of GDF1. Arsenic treatment downregulated Sp1 at both the mRNA and protein level and its downstream targets GDF1 and SIRT1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that the occupancy of Sp1 on the GDF1 or SIRT1 promoter was significantly reduced in response to arsenite. Further investigation showed that Sp1 overexpression inhibited the arsenic-mediated decrease in GDF1 and SIRT1, while Sp1 knockdown had the opposite effect. We found that expression of the oxidative adaptor p66shc was inversely related to that of SIRT1 and that the binding of SIRT1 to the p66shc promoter was sharply attenuated by arsenite treatment. SIRT1 overexpression attenuated p66shc expression but enhanced GDF1 protein expression, while SIRT1 depletion exerted the opposite effect. Both the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and folic acid reversed the arsenic-mediated repression of Sp1, GDF1 and SIRT1. Moreover, wild-type p66shc overexpression enhanced the arsenic-mediated repression of Sp1, GDF1 and SIRT1, which was accompanied by an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, while both overexpression of a dominant negative p66shcSer36Ala mutant and deficiency in p66shc reversed these effects. Taken together, our results revealed that arsenic suppresses GDF1 expression via the ROS-dependent downregulation of the Sp1/SIRT1 axis, which forms a negative feedback loop with p66shc to regulate oxidative stress. Our findings reveal a novel molecular mechanism underlying arsenic toxicity and provide new insight into the protective effect of folic acid in arsenic-mediated toxicity.

Regulatory Role of Retinoic Acid in Male Pregnancy of the Seahorse

Seahorses epitomize the exuberance of evolution. They have the unique characteristic of male pregnancy, which includes the carrying of many embryos in a brood pouch that incubates and nourishes the embryos, similar to the mammalian placenta. However, the regulatory networks underlying brood pouch formation and pregnancy remain largely unknown. In this study, comparative transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling on the lined seahorse Hippocampus erectus, with unformed, newly formed, and pregnant brood pouches identified a total of 141 and 2,533 differentially expressed genes together with 73 and 121 significantly differential metabolites related to brood pouch formation and pregnancy, respectively. Specifically, integrative omics analysis revealed that retinoic acid (RA) synthesis and signaling pathway played essential roles in the formation of the brood pouch and pregnancy. RA might function upstream of testosterone and progesterone, thereby directly influencing brood pouch formation by regulating the expression of fshr and cyp7a1. Our results also revealed that RA regulates antioxidant defenses, particularly during male pregnancy. Alternatively, pregnancy caused a consistent decrease in RA, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, and glutathione synthetase, and an increase in susceptibility to oxidative stress, which may balance brood pouch development and reproduction in seahorses and pave the way to successful gestation.

Transcriptome analysis revealed misregulated gene expression in blastoderms of interspecific chicken and Japanese quail F1 hybrids

Hybrid incompatibility, such as sterility and inviability, prevents gene flow between closely-related populations as a reproductive isolation barrier. F₁ hybrids between chickens and Japanese quail (hereafter, referred to as quail), exhibit a high frequency of developmental arrest at the preprimitive streak stage. To investigate the molecular basis of the developmental arrest at the preprimitive streak stage in chicken–quail F₁ hybrid embryos, we investigated chromosomal abnormalities in the hybrid embryos using molecular cytogenetic analysis. In addition, we quantified gene expression in parental species and chicken- and quail-derived allele-specific expression in the hybrids at the early blastoderm and preprimitive streak stages by mRNA sequencing. Subsequently, we compared the directions of change in gene expression, including upregulation, downregulation, or no change, from the early blastoderm stage to the preprimitive streak stage between parental species and their hybrids. Chromosome analysis revealed that the cells of the hybrid embryos contained a fifty-fifty mixture of parental chromosomes, and numerical chromosomal abnormalities were hardly observed in the hybrid cells. Gene expression analysis revealed that a part of the genes that were upregulated from the early blastoderm stage to the preprimitive streak stage in both parental species exhibited no upregulation of both chicken- and quail-derived alleles in the hybrids. GO term enrichment analysis revealed that these misregulated genes are involved in various biological processes, including ribosome-mediated protein synthesis and cell proliferation. Furthermore, the misregulated genes included genes involved in early embryonic development, such as primitive streak formation and gastrulation. These results suggest that numerical chromosomal abnormalities due to a segregation failure does not cause the lethality of chicken–quail hybrid embryos, and that the downregulated expression of the genes that are involved in various biological processes, including translation and primitive streak formation, mainly causes the developmental arrest at the preprimitive streak stage in the hybrids.

Cellular processes driving gastrulation in the avian embryo

Gastrulation consists in the dramatic reorganisation of the epiblast, a one-cell thick epithelial sheet, into a multilayered embryo. In chick, the formation of the internal layers requires the generation of a macroscopic convection-like flow, which involves up to 50,000 epithelial cells in the epiblast. These cell movements locate the mesendoderm precursors into the midline of the epiblast to form the primitive streak. There they acquire a mesenchymal phenotype, ingress into the embryo and migrate outward to populate the inner embryonic layers. This review covers what is currently understood about how cell behaviours ultimately cause these morphogenetic events and how they are regulated. We discuss 1) how the biochemical patterning of the embryo before gastrulation creates compartments of differential cell behaviours, 2) how the global epithelial flows arise from the coordinated actions of individual cells, 3) how the cells delaminate individually from the epiblast during the ingression, and 4) how cells move after the ingression following stereotypical migration routes. We conclude by exploring new technical advances that will facilitate future research in the chick model system.

The extracellular matrix in development

As the crucial non-cellular component of tissues, the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides both physical support and signaling regulation to cells. Some ECM molecules provide a fibrillar environment around cells, while others provide a sheet-like basement membrane scaffold beneath epithelial cells. In this Review, we focus on recent studies investigating the mechanical, biophysical and signaling cues provided to developing tissues by different types of ECM in a variety of developing organisms. In addition, we discuss how the ECM helps to regulate tissue morphology during embryonic development by governing key elements of cell shape, adhesion, migration and differentiation.

Summary: This Review discusses our current understanding of how the extracellular matrix helps guide developing tissues by influencing cell adhesion, migration, shape and differentiation, emphasizing the biophysical cues it provides.

Molecular anatomy of the pre-primitive-streak chick embryo

The early stages of development of the chick embryo, leading to primitive streak formation (the start of gastrulation), have received renewed attention recently, especially for studies of the mechanisms of large-scale cell movements and those that position the primitive streak in the radial blastodisc. Over the long history of chick embryology, the terminology used to define different regions has been changing, making it difficult to relate studies to each other. To resolve this objectively requires precise definitions of the regions based on anatomical and functional criteria, along with a systematic molecular map that can be compared directly to the functional anatomy. Here, we undertake these tasks. We describe the characteristic cell morphologies (using scanning electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry for cell polarity markers) in different regions and at successive stages. RNAseq was performed for 12 regions of the blastodisc, from which a set of putative regional markers was selected. These were studied in detail by in situ hybridization. Together this provides a comprehensive resource allowing the community to define the regions unambiguously and objectively. In addition to helping with future experimental design and interpretation, this resource will also be useful for evolutionary comparisons between different vertebrate species.

Signaling events regulating embryonic polarity and formation of the primitive streak in the chick embryo

The avian embryo is a key experimental model system for early development of amniotes. One key difference with invertebrates and "lower" vertebrates like fish and amphibians is that amniotes do not rely so heavily on maternal messages because the zygotic genome is activated very early. Early development also involves considerable growth in volume and mass of the embryo, with cell cycles that include G1 and G2 phases from very early cleavage. The very early maternal to zygotic transition also allows the embryo to establish its own polarity without relying heavily on maternal determinants. In many amniotes including avians and non-rodent mammals, this enables an ability of the embryo to "regulate": a single multicellular embryo can give rise to more than one individual-monozygotic twins. Here we discuss the embryological, cellular, molecular and evolutionary underpinnings of gastrulation in avian embryos as a model amniote embryo. Many of these properties are shared by human embryos.

Association of functional variant in GDF1 promoter with risk of congenital heart disease and its regulation by Nkx2.5

GDF1 plays an important role in left–right patterning and genetic mutations in the coding region of GDF1 are associated with congenital heart disease (CHD). However, the genetic variation in the promoter of GDF1 with sporadic CHD and its expression regulation is little known. The association of the genetic variation in GDF1 promoter with CHD was examined in two case–control studies, including 1084 cases and 1198 controls in the first study and 582 cases and 615 controls in the second study. We identified one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs181317402 and two novel genetic mutations located in the promoter region of GDF1. Analysis of combined samples revealed a significant association in genotype and allele frequencies of rs181317402 T/G polymorphism between CHD cases in overall or ventricular septal defects or Tetralogy of Fallot and the control group. rs181317402 allele G polymorphism was significantly associated with a decreased risk of CHD. Furthermore, luciferase assay, chromatin immunoprecipitation and DNA pulldown assay indicated that Nkx2.5 transactivated the expression of GDF1 by binding to the promoter of GDF1. Luciferase activity assay showed that rs181317402 allele G significantly increased the basal and Nkx2.5-mediated activity of GDF1 promoter, while the two genetic mutations had the opposite effect. rs181317402 TG genotype was associated with significantly increased mRNA level of GDF1 compared with TT genotype in 18 CHD individuals. Our results demonstrate for the first time that Nkx2.5 acts upstream of GDF1 and the genetic variants in GDF1 promoter may confer genetic susceptibility to sporadic CHD potentially by altering its expression.

The first whole transcriptomic exploration of pre-oviposited early chicken embryos using single and bulked embryonic RNA-sequencing

Background

The chicken is a valuable model organism, especially in evolutionary and embryology research because its embryonic development occurs in the egg. However, despite its scientific importance, no transcriptome data have been generated for deciphering the early developmental stages of the chicken because of practical and technical constraints in accessing pre-oviposited embryos.

Findings

Here, we determine the entire transcriptome of pre-oviposited avian embryos, including oocyte, zygote, and intrauterine embryos from Eyal-giladi and Kochav stage I (EGK.I) to EGK.X collected using a noninvasive approach for the first time. We also compare RNA-sequencing data obtained using a bulked embryo sequencing and single embryo/cell sequencing technique. The raw sequencing data were preprocessed with two genome builds, Galgal4 and Galgal5, and the expression of 17,108 and 26,102 genes was quantified in the respective builds. There were some differences between the two techniques, as well as between the two genome builds, and these were affected by the emergence of long intergenic noncoding RNA annotations.

Conclusion

The first transcriptome datasets of pre-oviposited early chicken embryos based on bulked and single embryo sequencing techniques will serve as a valuable resource for investigating early avian embryogenesis, for comparative studies among vertebrates, and for novel gene annotation in the chicken genome.

The phenomenon of the monovular twinning in the endangered zatorska goose

The phenomenon of multiple embryos in birds and other oviparous vertebrates is very rare and thus poorly studied. Some populations of wild birds or lines of poultry, including the zatorska goose, may be particularly predisposed to developing monovular twin embryos (MTE). The aim of the study was to investigate the frequency of single yolk twin embryos in the zatorska goose and to establish whether these embryos are generated as a result of polyembryony or other developmental anomalies.Embryopathological analysis, which included identification of the developmental stages of all MTEs at the time of death, was carried out on 1,955 unhatched eggs obtained from 20 pedigree breeding flocks of the zatorska goose. Post-mortem examinations revealed as many as 13 MTEs (0.66% compared to embryonated eggs) at varying developmental stages.The results of genotyping of the microsatellite loci of 7 pairs of twins demonstrated genetic similarity in 6 of them; this suggests that they developed from 1 blastoderm, while differences in 2 loci of 1 pair show that the MTE originates from 2 blastodiscs. Pedigree analysis of the MTEs does not provide evidence that predisposition toward twinning results from the genetic background. However, more frequent MTE occurrence could be seen in eggs stored for more than 8 d. It seems that embryos of the zatorska goose are more susceptible to duplication under special conditions, such as prolonged egg storage.

The novel 22 bp insertion mutation in a promoter region of the <i>PITX2</i> gene is associated with litter size and growth traits in goats

Abstract. The paired-like homeodomain 2 (PITX2) gene plays a critical role in regulating development, reproduction, and growth traits in ruminants. Hence, the objective of this study was to explore the polymorphisms of this gene and to evaluate their associations with quantitative traits. Herein, a novel insertion in the promoter region of the PITX2 gene was reported in Shaanbei white cashmere (SBWC) goats (n=1012). The genotype distributions between mothers of single-kid and multi-kid groups within SBWC goats were significantly different (P<0.01), implying that this indel mutation might affect the litter size. Furthermore, association analysis found that this indel mutation was significantly associated with litter size (P=0.001). Individuals with genotype DD had a significantly smaller litter size than those with other genotypes (P<0.01). Besides, this indel was significantly associated with the body length (P=0.042) and the chest width (P=0.031). Especially, the individuals with genotype DD had a significantly lower body length than those with genotype II (P<0.05), which was consistent with the trend in litter size. These findings suggested that the new 22 bp indel mutation within the PITX2 gene is significantly associated with litter size and growth traits; this can be utilized as a functional molecular marker in goat breeding.

Pitx2 and nodal as conserved early markers of the anterior-posterior axis in the rabbit embryo

Attaining molecular and morphological axial polarity during gastrulation is a fundamental early requirement for normal development of the embryo. In mammals, the first morphological sign of the anterior-posterior axis appears anteriorly in the form of the anterior marginal crescent (or anterior visceral endoderm) while in the avian the first such sign is the Koller's sickle at the posterior pole of the embryonic disc. Despite this inverse mode of axis formation many genes and molecular pathways involved in various steps of this process seem to be evolutionarily conserved amongst amniotes, the nodal gene being a well-known example with its functional involvement prior and during gastrulation. The pitx2 gene, however, is a new candidate described in the chick as an early marker for anterior-posterior polarity and as a regulator of axis formation including twinning. To find out whether pitx2 has retained its inductive and early marker function during the evolution of mammals this study analyses pitx2 and nodal expression at parallel stages during formation of the anterior-posterior polarity in the early rabbit embryo using whole-mount in situ hybridization and serial light-microscopical sections. At a late pre-gastrulation stage a localized reduction of nodal expression presages the position of the anterior pole of the embryonic disc and thus serves as the earliest molecular marker of anterior-posterior polarity known so far. Pitx2 is expressed in a polarized manner in the anterior marginal crescent and in the posterior half of the embryonic disc during further development. In the anterior segment of the posterior pitx2 expression domain, the anterior streak domain (ASD) is defined by nodal expression as a hypothetical progenitor region of the anterior half of the primitive streak. The expression patterns of both genes thus serve as signs of a conserved involvement in early axis formation in amniotes and, possibly, in twinning in mammals as well.

Pitx2c orchestrates embryonic axis extension via mesendodermal cell migration

Pitx2c, a homeodomain transcription factor, is classically known for its left-right patterning role. However, an early wave of pitx2 expression occurs at the onset of gastrulation in several species, indicating a possible earlier role that remains relatively unexplored. Here we show that in zebrafish, maternal-zygotic (MZ) pitx2c mutants exhibit a shortened body axis indicative of convergence and extension (CE) defects. Live imaging reveals that MZpitx2c mutants display less persistent mesendodermal migration during late stages of gastrulation. Transplant data indicate that Pitx2c functions cell non-autonomously to regulate this cell behavior by modulating cell shape and protrusive activity. Using transcriptomic analyses and candidate gene approaches, we identify transcriptional changes in components of the chemokine-ECM-integrin dependent mesendodermal migration network. Together, our results define pathways downstream of Pitx2c that are required during early embryogenesis and reveal novel functions for Pitx2c as a regulator of morphogenesis.

Dynamic transcriptome profiling towards understanding the morphogenesis and development of diverse feather in domestic duck

Background

Feathers with complex and fine structure are hallmark avian integument appendages, which have contributed significantly to the survival and breeding for birds. Here, we aimed to explore the differentiation, morphogenesis and development of diverse feathers in the domestic duck.

Results

Transcriptome profiles of skin owing feather follicle from two body parts at three physiological stages were constructed to understand the molecular network and excavate the candidate genes associated with the development of plumulaceous and flight feather structures. The venn analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between abdomen and wing skin tissues at three developmental stages showed that 38 genes owing identical differentially expression pattern. Together, our data suggest that feather morphological and structural diversity can be possibly related to the homeobox proteins. The key series-clusters, many candidate biological processes and genes were identified for the morphogenesis, growth and development of two feather types. Through comparing the results of developmental transcriptomes from plumulaceous and flight feather, we found that DEGs belonging to the family of WNT, FGF and BMP have certain differences; even the consistent DEGs of skin and feather follicle transcriptomes from abdomen and wing have the different expression patterns.

Conclusions

Overall, this study detected many functional genes and showed differences in the molecular mechanisms of diverse feather developments. The findings in WNT, FGF and BMP, which were consistent with biological experiments, showed more possible complex modulations. A correlative role of HOX genes was also suggested but future biological verification experiments are required. This work provided valuable information for subsequent research on the morphogenesis of feathers.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4778-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The transcriptome of early chicken embryos reveals signaling pathways governing rapid asymmetric cellularization and lineage segregation

The phylogenomics and comparative functional genomics of avian species were investigated in the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) project because of the important evolutionary position of birds and their value as a research model. However, the systematic profiling of transcriptional changes prior to oviposition has not been investigated in avian species because of the practical difficulties in obtaining pre-oviposited eggs. In this study, a total of 137 pre-oviposited embryos were collected from hen ovaries and oviducts and subjected to RNA-sequencing analyses. Two waves of chicken zygotic genome activation (ZGA) were observed. Functionally distinct developmental programs involving Notch, MAPK, Wnt and TGFβ signaling were separately detected during cleavage and area pellucida formation. Furthermore, the early stages of chicken development were compared with the human and mouse counterparts, highlighting chicken-specific signaling pathways and gradually analogous gene expression via ZGA. These findings provide a genome-wide understanding of avian embryogenesis and comparisons among amniotes.

A molecular mechanism of symmetry breaking in the early chick embryo

The first obvious sign of bilateral symmetry in mammalian and avian embryos is the appearance of the primitive streak in the future posterior region of a radially symmetric disc. The primitive streak marks the midline of the future embryo. The mechanisms responsible for positioning the primitive streak remain largely unknown. Here we combine experimental embryology and mathematical modelling to analyse the role of the TGFβ-related molecules BMP4 and Vg1/GDF1 in positioning the primitive streak. Bmp4 and Vg1 are first expressed throughout the embryo, and then become localised to the future anterior and posterior regions of the embryo, where they will, respectively, inhibit or induce formation of the primitive streak. We propose a model based on paracrine signalling to account for the separation of the two domains starting from a homogeneous array of cells, and thus for the topological transformation of a radially symmetric disc to a bilaterally symmetric embryo.

Vertebrate Axial Patterning: From Egg to Asymmetry

The emergence of the bilateral embryonic body axis from a symmetrical egg has been a long-standing question in developmental biology. Historical and modern experiments point to an initial symmetry-breaking event leading to localized Wnt and Nodal growth factor signaling and subsequent induction and formation of a self-regulating dorsal "organizer." This organizer forms at the site of notochord cell internalization and expresses primarily Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) growth factor antagonists that establish a spatiotemporal gradient of BMP signaling across the embryo, directing initial cell differentiation and morphogenesis. Although the basics of this model have been known for some time, many of the molecular and cellular details have only recently been elucidated and the extent that these events remain conserved throughout vertebrate evolution remains unclear. This chapter summarizes historical perspectives as well as recent molecular and genetic advances regarding: (1) the mechanisms that regulate symmetry-breaking in the vertebrate egg and early embryo, (2) the pathways that are activated by these events, in particular the Wnt pathway, and the role of these pathways in the formation and function of the organizer, and (3) how these pathways also mediate anteroposterior patterning and axial morphogenesis. Emphasis is placed on comparative aspects of the egg-to-embryo transition across vertebrates and their evolution. The future prospects for work regarding self-organization and gene regulatory networks in the context of early axis formation are also discussed.

An Early Chick Embryo Culture Device for Extended Continuous Observation

Appropriate mechanical tension of the vitelline membrane as the culture substrate for the early chick embryo is frequently reported to be required for successful in vitro development. Here we describe a modified device, made of anodized aluminum, for in vitro culture which we used for studies of left-right symmetry breaking with emphasis on morphology and gene expression as readouts. The technique allows for easy, high-throughput tissue handling and provides a suitable tension in a stable and easily reproducible manner proven to be suitable for correct molecular left-right patterning and heart looping after long-term culture.

Genetic Variants Associated With Susceptibility to Atrial Fibrillation in a Japanese Population

BACKGROUND

Atrial fibrillation (AF) affects millions of individuals worldwide. The genome-wide association studies have identified robust genetic associations with AF.

METHODS

We genotyped 5461 participants of Japanese ancestry for 11 AF-related loci and determined the effects of carrying different numbers of risk alleles on disease development and age at disease onset. The weighted genetic risk score (GRS) was calculated, and its ability to predict AF was determined.

RESULTS

Six single-nucleotide polymorphisms-rs593479 (1q24 in PRRX1), rs1906617 (4q25 near PITX2), rs11773845 (7q31 in CAV1), rs6584555 (10q25 in NEURL), rs6490029 (12q24 in CUX2), and rs12932445 (16q22 in ZFHX3) (P < 1.9 × 10^-5)-were confirmed as being associated with AF. Patients with a high total number of risk alleles (9-12) had a younger median age at onset of AF (58 years; 95% confidence interval [CI], 55-60 years) than those with a low total number (1-4) (63 years; 95% CI, 61-64 years) (P = 0.0015). We observed a 4.38-fold (95% CI, 3.69-5.19) difference in risk of AF between individuals with scores in the top and bottom quartiles of the GRS. Receiver operating characteristic analysis indicated an area under the curve of 0.641 (95% CI, 0.628-0.653; P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Six loci were validated as associated with AF in a Japanese population. This study suggests that a combination of common genetic markers modestly facilitates discrimination of AF. This is the first report, to our knowledge, to demonstrate that the age of onset of AF is affected by common risk alleles.