Statistical learning attenuates visual activity only for attended stimuli

A dissociation between the effects of expectations and attention in selective visual processing

It is often claimed that probabilistic expectations affect visual perception directly, without mediation by selective attention. However, these claims have been disputed, as effects of expectation and attention are notoriously hard to dissociate experimentally. In this study, we used a new approach to separate expectations from attention. In four experiments (N = 60), participants searched for a target in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream and had to identify a digit or a letter defined by a low-level cue (colour or shape). Expectations about the target's alphanumeric category were probabilistically manipulated. Since category membership is a high-level feature and since the target was embedded among many distractors that shared its category, targets from the expected category should not attract attention more than targets from the unexpected category. In the first experiment, these targets were more likely to be identified relative to targets from the unexpected category. Importantly, in the following experiments, we also included behavioural and electrophysiological indices of attentional guidance and engagement. This allowed us to examine whether expectations also modulated these or earlier attentional processes. Results showed that category-based expectations had no modulatory effects on attention, and only affected processing at later encoding-related stages. Alternative interpretation of expectation effects in terms of repetition priming or response bias were also ruled out. These observations provide new evidence for direct attention-independent expectation effects on perception. We suggest that expectations can adjust the threshold required for encoding expectations-congruent information, thereby affecting the speed with which target objects are encoded in working memory.

Adaptation in the visual system: Networked fatigue or suppressed prediction error signalling?

Our brains are constantly adapting to changes in our visual environments. Neural adaptation exerts a persistent influence on the activity of sensory neurons and our perceptual experience, however there is a lack of consensus regarding how adaptation is implemented in the visual system. One account describes fatigue-based mechanisms embedded within local networks of stimulus-selective neurons (networked fatigue models). Another depicts adaptation as a product of stimulus expectations (predictive coding models). In this review, I evaluate neuroimaging and psychophysical evidence that poses fundamental problems for predictive coding models of neural adaptation. Specifically, I discuss observations of distinct repetition and expectation effects, as well as incorrect predictions of repulsive adaptation aftereffects made by predictive coding accounts. Based on this evidence, I argue that networked fatigue models provide a more parsimonious account of adaptation effects in the visual system. Although stimulus expectations can be formed based on recent stimulation history, any consequences of these expectations are likely to co-occur (or interact) with effects of fatigue-based adaptation. I conclude by proposing novel, testable hypotheses relating to interactions between fatigue-based adaptation and other predictive processes, focusing on stimulus feature extrapolation phenomena.

The Brain's Sensitivity to Real-world Statistical Regularity Does Not Require Full Attention

Predictive coding accounts of perception state that the brain generates perceptual predictions in the service of processing incoming sensory data. These predictions are hypothesized to be afforded by the brain's ability to internalize useful patterns, that is, statistical regularities, from the environment. We have previously argued that the N300 ERP component serves as an index of the brain's use of representations of (real-world) statistical regularities. However, we do not yet know whether overt attention is necessary in order for this process to engage. We addressed this question by presenting stimuli of either high or low real-world statistical regularity in terms of their representativeness (good/bad exemplars of natural scene categories) to participants who either fully attended the stimuli or were distracted by another task (attended/distracted conditions). Replicating past work, N300 responses were larger to bad than to good scene exemplars, and furthermore, we demonstrate minimal impacts of distraction on N300 effects. Thus, it seems that overtly focused attention is not required to maintain the brain's sensitivity to real-world statistical regularity. Furthermore, in an exploratory analysis, we showed that providing additional, artificial regularities, formed by altering the proportions of good and bad exemplars within blocks, further enhanced the N300 effect in both attended and distracted conditions, shedding light on the relationship between statistical regularities learned in the real world and those learned within the context of an experiment.

Amodal completion across the brain: The impact of structure and knowledge

This study investigates the phenomenon of amodal completion within the context of naturalistic objects, employing a repetition suppression paradigm to disentangle the influence of structure and knowledge cues on how objects are completed. The research focuses on early visual cortex (EVC) and lateral occipital complex (LOC), shedding light on how these brain regions respond to different completion scenarios. In LOC, we observed suppressed responses to structure and knowledge-compatible stimuli, providing evidence that both cues influence neural processing in higher-level visual areas. However, in EVC, we did not find evidence for differential responses to completions compatible or incompatible with either structural or knowledge-based expectations. Together, our findings suggest that the interplay between structure and knowledge cues in amodal completion predominantly impacts higher-level visual processing, with less pronounced effects on the early visual cortex. This study contributes to our understanding of the complex mechanisms underlying visual perception and highlights the distinct roles played by different brain regions in amodal completion.

Unraveling the complex interplay between statistical learning and working memory in Chinese children with and without dyslexia across different ages

The relation between statistical learning and working memory in children with developmental dyslexia (DD) remains unclear. This study employed a distributional and a conditional statistical learning experiment and a working memory task to examine this relation in 651 Chinese 6- to 12-year-olds with and without DD (NDD = 199, 101 females; NwoDD = 452, 227 females; participated 2014-2019). Results showed working memory positively associated with recognizing high-predictable and familiar items in both groups, but negatively associated with recognizing unfamiliar items in the DD group only. These findings uncovered the complex interplay between statistical learning and working memory, demonstrating how different working memory abilities in children with and without DD relate to various statistical learning mechanisms at the item level.

Investigating the neural effects of typicality and predictability for face and object stimuli

The brain calibrates itself based on the past stimulus diet, which makes frequently observed stimuli appear as typical (as opposed to uncommon stimuli, which appear as distinctive). Based on predictive processing theory, the brain should be more "prepared" for typical exemplars, because these contain information that has been encountered frequently, allowing it to economically represent items of that category. Thus, one could ask whether predictability and typicality of visual stimuli interact, or rather act in an additive manner. We adapted the design by Egner and colleagues (2010), who used cues to induce expectations about stimulus category (face vs. chair) occurrence during an orthogonal inversion detection task. We measured BOLD responses with fMRI in 35 participants. First, distinctive stimuli always elicited stronger responses than typical ones in all ROIs, and our whole-brain directional contrasts for the effects of typicality and distinctiveness converge with previous findings. Second and importantly, we could not replicate the interaction between category and predictability reported by Egner et al. (2010), which casts doubt on whether cueing designs are ideal to elicit reliable predictability effects. Third, likely as a consequence of the lack of predictability effects, we found no interaction between predictability and typicality in any of the four tested regions (bilateral fusiform face areas, lateral occipital complexes) when considering both categories, nor in the whole brain. We discuss the issue of replicability in neuroscience and sketch an agenda for how future studies might address the same question.

Expectation Modulates Repetition Suppression at Late But Not Early Stages during Visual Word Recognition: Evidence from Event-related Potentials

Visual word recognition is commonly rapid and efficient, incorporating top-down predictive processing mechanisms. Neuroimaging studies with face stimuli suggest that repetition suppression (RS) reflects predictive processing at the neural level, as this effect is larger when repetitions are more frequent, that is, more expected. It remains unclear, however, at the temporal level whether and how RS and its modulation by expectation occur in visual word recognition. To address this gap, the present study aimed to investigate the presence and time course of these effects during visual word recognition using EEG. Thirty-six native Cantonese speakers were presented with pairs of Chinese written words and performed a nonlinguistic oddball task. The second word of a pair was either a repetition of the first or a different word (alternation). In repetition blocks, 75% of trials were repetitions and 25% were alternations, whereas the reverse was true in alternation blocks. Topographic analysis of variance of EEG at each time point showed robust RS effects in three time windows (141-227 msec, 242-445 msec, and 467-513 msec) reflecting facilitation of visual word recognition. Importantly, the modulation of RS by expectation was observed at the late rather than early intervals (334-387 msec, 465-550 msec, and 559-632 msec) and more than 100 msec after the first RS effects. In the predictive coding view of RS, only late repetition effects are modulated by expectation, whereas early RS effects may be mediated by lower-level predictions. Taken together, our findings provide the first EEG evidence revealing distinct temporal dynamics of RS effects and repetition probability on RS effects in visual processing of Chinese words.

The pupil dilation response as an indicator of visual cue uncertainty and auditory outcome surprise

In everyday perception, we combine incoming sensory information with prior expectations. Expectations can be induced by cues that indicate the probability of following sensory events. The information provided by cues may differ and hence lead to different levels of uncertainty about which event will follow. In this experiment, we employed pupillometry to investigate whether the pupil dilation response to visual cues varies depending on the level of cue-associated uncertainty about a following auditory outcome. Also, we tested whether the pupil dilation response reflects the amount of surprise about the subsequently presented auditory stimulus. In each trial, participants were presented with a visual cue (face image) which was followed by an auditory outcome (spoken vowel). After the face cue, participants had to indicate by keypress which of three auditory vowels they expected to hear next. We manipulated the cue-associated uncertainty by varying the probabilistic cue-outcome contingencies: One face was most likely followed by one specific vowel (low cue uncertainty), another face was equally likely followed by either of two vowels (intermediate cue uncertainty) and the third face was followed by all three vowels (high cue uncertainty). Our results suggest that pupil dilation in response to task-relevant cues depends on the associated uncertainty, but only for large differences in the cue-associated uncertainty. Additionally, in response to the auditory outcomes, the pupil dilation scaled negatively with the cue-dependent probabilities, likely signalling the amount of surprise.

Pupil diameter as an indicator of sound pair familiarity after statistically structured auditory sequence

Inspired by recent findings in the visual domain, we investigated whether the stimulus-evoked pupil dilation reflects temporal statistical regularities in sequences of auditory stimuli. We conducted two preregistered pupillometry experiments (experiment 1, n = 30, 21 females; experiment 2, n = 31, 22 females). In both experiments, human participants listened to sequences of spoken vowels in two conditions. In the first condition, the stimuli were presented in a random order and, in the second condition, the same stimuli were presented in a sequence structured in pairs. The second experiment replicated the first experiment with a modified timing and number of stimuli presented and without participants being informed about any sequence structure. The sound-evoked pupil dilation during a subsequent familiarity task indicated that participants learned the auditory vowel pairs of the structured condition. However, pupil diameter during the structured sequence did not differ according to the statistical regularity of the pair structure. This contrasts with similar visual studies, emphasizing the susceptibility of pupil effects during statistically structured sequences to experimental design settings in the auditory domain. In sum, our findings suggest that pupil diameter may serve as an indicator of sound pair familiarity but does not invariably respond to task-irrelevant transition probabilities of auditory sequences.

Linguistic and attentional factors - Not statistical regularities - Contribute to word-selective neural responses with FPVS-oddball paradigms

Studies using frequency-tagging in electroencephalography (EEG) have dramatically increased in the past 10 years, in a variety of domains and populations. Here we used Fast Periodic Visual Stimulation (FPVS) combined with an oddball design to explore visual word recognition. Given the paradigm's high sensitivity, it is crucial for future basic research and clinical application to prove its robustness across variations of designs, stimulus types and tasks. This paradigm uses periodicity of brain responses to measure discrimination between two experimentally defined categories of stimuli presented periodically. EEG was recorded in 22 adults who viewed words inserted every 5 stimuli (at 2 Hz) within base stimuli presented at 10 Hz. Using two discrimination levels (deviant words among nonwords or pseudowords), we assessed the impact of relative frequency of item repetition (set size or item repetition controlled for deviant versus base stimuli), and of the orthogonal task (focused or deployed spatial attention). Word-selective occipito-temporal responses were robust at the individual level (significant in 95% of participants), left-lateralized, larger for the prelexical (nonwords) than lexical (pseudowords) contrast, and stronger with a deployed spatial attention task as compared to the typically used focused task. Importantly, amplitudes were not affected by item repetition. These results help understanding the factors influencing word-selective EEG responses and support the validity of FPVS-EEG oddball paradigms, as they confirm that word-selective responses are linguistic. Second, they show its robustness against design-related factors that could induce statistical (ir)regularities in item rate. They also confirm its high individual sensitivity and demonstrate how it can be optimized, using a deployed rather than focused attention task, to measure implicit word recognition processes in typical and atypical populations.

Location-specific deviant responses to object sequences in macaque inferior temporal cortex

Many species learn temporal regularities in their visual environment, demonstrating visual statistical learning. In this study, we explored the sensitivity of macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortical neurons to transition probabilities of sequentially presented visual images, presented at different locations in the visual field. We exposed monkeys to sequences of two images, where the first image was presented either foveally or peripherally, and the second image was consistently presented foveally. Following several weeks of exposure, we recorded IT responses to assess differences between the exposed (Fixed) and new, Deviant sequences, where the identity of the first image in a sequence differed from the exposure phase. While enhanced responses to Deviant sequences were observed when both images of a pair were foveally presented during exposure, no such deviant responses were present when the first image was presented peripherally. This finding challenges the notion that mere exposure to image sequences always leads to deviant responses in macaque IT. The results highlight the complexity of the mechanisms underlying statistical learning in primates, particularly in the context of peripheral image presentations, emphasizing the need for further investigation into the origins of these responses in the IT cortex.

Event Probabilities Have a Different Impact on Early and Late Electroencephalographic Measures Regarded as Metrics of Prediction

The oddball protocol has been used to study the neural and perceptual consequences of implicit predictions in the human brain. The protocol involves presenting a sequence of identical repeated events that are eventually broken by a novel "oddball" presentation. Oddball presentations have been linked to increased neural responding and to an exaggeration of perceived duration relative to repeated events. Because the number of repeated events in such protocols is circumscribed, as more repeats are encountered, the conditional probability of a further repeat decreases-whereas the conditional probability of an oddball increases. These facts have not been appreciated in many analyses of oddballs; repeats and oddballs have rather been treated as binary event categories. Here, we show that the human brain is sensitive to conditional event probabilities in an active, visual oddball paradigm. P300 responses (a relatively late component of visually evoked potentials measured with EEG) tended to be greater for less likely oddballs and repeats. By contrast, P1 responses (an earlier component) increased for repeats as a goal-relevant target presentation neared, but this effect occurred even when repeat probabilities were held constant, and oddball P1 responses were invariant. We also found that later, more likely oddballs seemed to last longer, and this effect was largely independent of the number of preceding repeats. These findings speak against a repetition suppression account of the temporal oddball effect. Overall, our data highlight an impact of event probability on later, rather than earlier, electroencephalographic measures previously related to predictive processes-and the importance of considering conditional probabilities in sequential presentation paradigms.

Strength of predicted information content in the brain biases decision behavior

Prediction-for-perception theories suggest that the brain predicts incoming stimuli to facilitate their categorization.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17 However, it remains unknown what the information contents of these predictions are, which hinders mechanistic explanations. This is because typical approaches cast predictions as an underconstrained contrast between two categories18,19,20,21,22,23,24-e.g., faces versus cars, which could lead to predictions of features specific to faces or cars, or features from both categories. Here, to pinpoint the information contents of predictions and thus their mechanistic processing in the brain, we identified the features that enable two different categorical perceptions of the same stimuli. We then trained multivariate classifiers to discern, from dynamic MEG brain responses, the features tied to each perception. With an auditory cueing design, we reveal where, when, and how the brain reactivates visual category features (versus the typical category contrast) before the stimulus is shown. We demonstrate that the predictions of category features have a more direct influence (bias) on subsequent decision behavior in participants than the typical category contrast. Specifically, these predictions are more precisely localized in the brain (lateralized), are more specifically driven by the auditory cues, and their reactivation strength before a stimulus presentation exerts a greater bias on how the individual participant later categorizes this stimulus. By characterizing the specific information contents that the brain predicts and then processes, our findings provide new insights into the brain's mechanisms of prediction for perception.

Separate and overlapping mechanisms of statistical regularities and salience processing in the occipital cortex and dorsal attention network

Attention selects behaviorally relevant inputs for in-depth processing. Beside the role of traditional signals related to goal-directed and stimulus-driven control, a debate exists regarding the mechanisms governing the effect of statistical regularities on attentional selection, and how these are integrated with other control signals. Using a visuo-spatial search task under fMRI, we tested the joint effects of statistical regularities and stimulus-driven salience. We found that both types of signals modulated occipital activity in a spatially specific manner. Salience acted primarily by reducing the attention bias towards the target location when associated with irrelevant distractors, while statistical regularities reduced this attention bias when the target was presented at a low probability location, particularly at the lower levels of the visual hierarchy. In addition, we found that both statistical regularities and salience activated the dorsal frontoparietal network. Additional exploratory analyses of functional connectivity revealed that only statistical regularities modulated the inter-regional coupling between the posterior parietal cortex and the occipital cortex. These results show that statistical regularities and salience signals are both spatially represented at the occipital level, but that their integration into attentional processing priorities relies on dissociable brain mechanisms.

Stimulus expectations do not modulate visual event-related potentials in probabilistic cueing designs

Humans and other animals can learn and exploit repeating patterns that occur within their environments. These learned patterns can be used to form expectations about future sensory events. Several influential predictive coding models have been proposed to explain how learned expectations influence the activity of stimulus-selective neurons in the visual system. These models specify reductions in neural response measures when expectations are fulfilled (termed expectation suppression) and increases following surprising sensory events. However, there is currently scant evidence for expectation suppression in the visual system when confounding factors are taken into account. Effects of surprise have been observed in blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signals, but not when using electrophysiological measures. To provide a strong test for expectation suppression and surprise effects we performed a predictive cueing experiment while recording electroencephalographic (EEG) data. Participants (n=48) learned cue-face associations during a training session and were then exposed to these cue-face pairs in a subsequent experiment. Using univariate analyses of face-evoked event-related potentials (ERPs) we did not observe any differences across expected (90% probability), neutral (50%) and surprising (10%) face conditions. Across these comparisons, Bayes factors consistently favoured the null hypothesis throughout the time-course of the stimulus-evoked response. When using multivariate pattern analysis we did not observe above-chance classification of expected and surprising face-evoked ERPs. By contrast, we found robust within- and across-trial stimulus repetition effects. Our findings do not support predictive coding-based accounts that specify reduced prediction error signalling when perceptual expectations are fulfilled. They instead highlight the utility of other types of predictive processing models that describe expectation-related phenomena in the visual system without recourse to prediction error signalling.

Linguistic Priors for Perception

In this commentary, we approach the topic of linguistic relativity from a predictive coding perspective. Discussing the role of "priors" in shaping perception, we argue that language creates an important set of priors for humans, which can affect how sensory information is processed and interpreted. Namely, languages create conventionalized conceptual systems for their speakers, mirroring and reinforcing what is behaviorally important in a society. As such, they create collective conceptual convergence on how to categorize the world and thus "streamline" what people rely on to guide their perception.

Flexible structure learning under uncertainty

Experience is known to facilitate our ability to interpret sequences of events and make predictions about the future by extracting temporal regularities in our environments. Here, we ask whether uncertainty in dynamic environments affects our ability to learn predictive structures. We exposed participants to sequences of symbols determined by first-order Markov models and asked them to indicate which symbol they expected to follow each sequence. We introduced uncertainty in this prediction task by manipulating the: (a) probability of symbol co-occurrence, (b) stimulus presentation rate. Further, we manipulated feedback, as it is known to play a key role in resolving uncertainty. Our results demonstrate that increasing the similarity in the probabilities of symbol co-occurrence impaired performance on the prediction task. In contrast, increasing uncertainty in stimulus presentation rate by introducing temporal jitter resulted in participants adopting a strategy closer to probability maximization than matching and improving in the prediction tasks. Next, we show that feedback plays a key role in learning predictive statistics. Trial-by-trial feedback yielded stronger improvement than block feedback or no feedback; that is, participants adopted a strategy closer to probability maximization and showed stronger improvement when trained with trial-by-trial feedback. Further, correlating individual strategy with learning performance showed better performance in structure learning for observers who adopted a strategy closer to maximization. Our results indicate that executive cognitive functions (i.e., selective attention) may account for this individual variability in strategy and structure learning ability. Taken together, our results provide evidence for flexible structure learning; individuals adapt their decision strategy closer to probability maximization, reducing uncertainty in temporal sequences and improving their ability to learn predictive statistics in variable environments.

Rapid adaptation of primate LGN neurons to drifting grating stimulation

The visual system needs to dynamically adapt to changing environments. Much is known about the adaptive effects of constant stimulation over prolonged periods. However, there are open questions regarding adaptation to stimuli that are changing over time, interrupted, or repeated. Feature-specific adaptation to repeating stimuli has been shown to occur as early as primary visual cortex (V1), but there is also evidence for more generalized, fatigue-like adaptation that might occur at an earlier stage of processing. Here, we show adaptation in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of awake, fixating monkeys following brief (1 s) exposure to repeated cycles of a 4-Hz drifting grating. We examined the relative change of each neuron's response across successive (repeated) grating cycles. We found that neurons from all cell classes (parvocellular, magnocellular, and koniocellular) showed significant adaptation. However, only magnocellular neurons showed adaptation when responses were averaged to a population response. In contrast to firing rates, response variability was largely unaffected. Finally, adaptation was comparable between monocular and binocular stimulation, suggesting that rapid LGN adaptation is monocular in nature.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neural adaptation can be defined as reduction of spiking responses following repeated or prolonged stimulation. Adaptation helps adjust neural responsiveness to avoid saturation and has been suggested to improve perceptual selectivity, information transmission, and predictive coding. Here, we report rapid adaptation to repeated cycles of gratings drifting over the receptive field of neurons at the earliest site of postretinal processing, the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.

Conceptual Associations Generate Sensory Predictions

A crucial ability of the human brain is to learn and exploit probabilistic associations between stimuli to facilitate perception and behavior by predicting future events. Although studies have shown how perceptual relationships are used to predict sensory inputs, relational knowledge is often between concepts rather than percepts (e.g., we learned to associate cats with dogs, rather than specific images of cats and dogs). Here, we asked if and how sensory responses to visual input may be modulated by predictions derived from conceptual associations. To this end we exposed participants of both sexes to arbitrary word-word pairs (e.g., car-dog) repeatedly, creating an expectation of the second word, conditional on the occurrence of the first. In a subsequent session, we exposed participants to novel word-picture pairs, while measuring fMRI BOLD responses. All word-picture pairs were equally likely, but half of the pairs conformed to the previously formed conceptual (word-word) associations, whereas the other half violated this association. Results showed suppressed sensory responses throughout the ventral visual stream, including early visual cortex, to pictures that corresponded to the previously expected words compared with unexpected words. This suggests that the learned conceptual associations were used to generate sensory predictions that modulated processing of the picture stimuli. Moreover, these modulations were tuning specific, selectively suppressing neural populations tuned toward the expected input. Combined, our results suggest that recently acquired conceptual priors are generalized across domains and used by the sensory brain to generate category-specific predictions, facilitating processing of expected visual input.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Perceptual predictions play a crucial role in facilitating perception and the integration of sensory information. However, little is known about whether and how the brain uses more abstract, conceptual priors to form sensory predictions. In our preregistered study, we show that priors derived from recently acquired arbitrary conceptual associations result in category-specific predictions that modulate perceptual processing throughout the ventral visual hierarchy, including early visual cortex. These results suggest that the predictive brain uses prior knowledge across various domains to modulate perception, thereby extending our understanding of the extensive role predictions play in perception.

Inferior temporal cortex leads prefrontal cortex in response to a violation of a learned sequence

Primates learn statistical regularities that are embedded in visual sequences, a form of statistical learning. Single-unit recordings in macaques showed that inferior temporal (IT) neurons are sensitive to statistical regularities in visual sequences. Here, we asked whether ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), which is connected to IT, is also sensitive to the transition probabilities in visual sequences and whether the statistical learning signal in IT originates in VLPFC. We recorded simultaneously multiunit activity (MUA) and local field potentials (LFPs) in IT and VLPFC after monkeys were exposed to triplets of images with a fixed presentation order. In both areas, the MUA was stronger to images that violated the learned sequence (deviants) compared to the same images presented in the learned triplets. The high-gamma and beta LFP power showed an enhanced and suppressed response, respectively, to the deviants in both areas. The enhanced response was present also for the image following the deviant, suggesting a sensitivity for temporal adjacent dependencies in IT and VLPFC. The increased response to the deviant occurred later in VLPFC than in IT, suggesting that the deviant response in IT was not inherited from VLPFC. These data support predictive coding theories that propose a feedforward flow of prediction errors.

Multivariate functional neuroimaging analyses reveal that strength-dependent face expectations are represented in higher-level face-identity areas

Perception is an active inference in which prior expectations are combined with sensory input. It is still unclear how the strength of prior expectations is represented in the human brain. The strength, or precision, of a prior could be represented with its content, potentially in higher-level sensory areas. We used multivariate analyses of functional resonance imaging data to test whether expectation strength is represented together with the expected face in high-level face-sensitive regions. Participants were trained to associate images of scenes with subsequently presented images of different faces. Each scene predicted three faces, each with either low, intermediate, or high probability. We found that anticipation enhances the similarity of response patterns in the face-sensitive anterior temporal lobe to response patterns specifically associated with the image of the expected face. In contrast, during face presentation, activity increased for unexpected faces in a typical prediction error network, containing areas such as the caudate and the insula. Our findings show that strength-dependent face expectations are represented in higher-level face-identity areas, supporting hierarchical theories of predictive processing according to which higher-level sensory regions represent weighted priors.

Updating Contextual Sensory Expectations for Adaptive Behavior

The brain has the extraordinary capacity to construct predictive models of the environment by internalizing statistical regularities in the sensory inputs. The resulting sensory expectations shape how we perceive and react to the world; at the neural level, this relates to decreased neural responses to expected than unexpected stimuli ("expectation suppression"). Crucially, expectations may need revision as context changes. However, existing research has often neglected this issue. Further, it is unclear whether contextual revisions apply selectively to expectations relevant to the task at hand, hence serving adaptive behavior. The present fMRI study examined how contextual visual expectations spread throughout the cortical hierarchy as we update our beliefs. We created a volatile environment: two alternating contexts contained different sequences of object images, thereby producing context-dependent expectations that needed revision when the context changed. Human participants of both sexes attended a training session before scanning to learn the contextual sequences. The fMRI experiment then tested for the emergence of contextual expectation suppression in two separate tasks, respectively, with task-relevant and task-irrelevant expectations. Effects of contextual expectation emerged progressively across the cortical hierarchy as participants attuned themselves to the context: expectation suppression appeared first in the insula, inferior frontal gyrus, and posterior parietal cortex, followed by the ventral visual stream, up to early visual cortex. This applied selectively to task-relevant expectations. Together, the present results suggest that an insular and frontoparietal executive control network may guide the flexible deployment of contextual sensory expectations for adaptive behavior in our complex and dynamic world.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The world is structured by statistical regularities, which we use to predict the future. This is often accompanied by suppressed neural responses to expected compared with unexpected events ("expectation suppression"). Crucially, the world is also highly volatile and context-dependent: expected events may become unexpected when the context changes, thus raising the crucial need for belief updating. However, this issue has generally been neglected. By setting up a volatile environment, we show that expectation suppression emerges first in executive control regions, followed by relevant sensory areas, only when observers use their expectations to optimize behavior. This provides surprising yet clear evidence on how the brain controls the updating of sensory expectations for adaptive behavior in our ever-changing world.

Distinct interacting cortical networks for stimulus-response and repetition-suppression

Non-invasive studies consider the initial neural stimulus response (SR) and repetition suppression (RS) - the decreased response to repeated sensory stimuli - as engaging the same neurons. That is, RS is a suppression of the SR. We challenge this conjecture using electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings with high spatial resolution in ten patients listening to task-irrelevant trains of auditory stimuli. SR and RS were indexed by high-frequency activity (HFA) across temporal, parietal, and frontal cortices. HFASR and HFARS were temporally and spatially distinct, with HFARS emerging later than HFASR and showing only a limited spatial intersection with HFASR: most HFASR sites did not demonstrate HFARS, and HFARS was found where no HFASR could be recorded. β activity was enhanced in HFARS compared to HFASR cortical sites. θ activity was enhanced in HFASR compared to HFARS sites. Furthermore, HFASR sites propagated information to HFARS sites via transient θ:β phase-phase coupling. In contrast to predictive coding (PC) accounts our results indicate that HFASR and HFARS are functionally linked but have minimal spatial overlap. HFASR might enable stable and rapid perception of environmental stimuli across extended temporal intervals. In contrast HFARS might support efficient generation of an internal model based on stimulus history.

Selection history and task predictability determine the precision expectations in attentional control

Predictive processing frameworks have demonstrated the central role that prediction plays in a range of cognitive processes including bottom-up and top-down mechanisms of attention control. However, relatively little is understood about how predictive processes interact with the third main determinant of attentional priority - selection history. In this experiment, participants developed a history of either color or shape selection while we observed the impact of these histories in an additional singleton search task using behavioral measures and ERP measures of attentional control. Throughout the experiment, participants were encouraged to predict the upcoming display, but prediction errors were either high or low depending on session. Persistent group differences in our results showed that selection history contributes to the precision weighting of a stimulus, and that this is mediated by overall prediction error. Color-singleton distractors captured attention and required greater suppression when participants had a history of color selection; however, these participants gained large benefits when the upcoming stimuli were highly predictable. We suggest that selection history modulates the precision expectations for a feature in a persistent and implicit way, producing an attentional bias that predictability can help to counteract, but cannot prevent or eliminate entirely.

Dissociable effects of attention and expectation on perceptual sensitivity to action-outcomes

Self-generated sensations evoke attenuated neural response - physiological attenuation - and is perceived with less intensity - perceptual attenuation. This phenomenon is referred as sensory attenuation and is proposed to reflect the silencing of predicted sensations. The present study aimed to investigate the independent contribution of expectation and attention on sensory attenuation. The expectation associated with the stimulus feature and the focus of attention was manipulated independently by orthogonal cues. We found pronounced sensory attenuation at the unattended location when the stimulus was self-generated (Experiment 1). When the stimulus was externally-generated (Experiment 2), sensory attenuation was observed at the attended location. Sensory attenuation of expected action-outcome was not observed when the attention cue was uninformative (Experiment 3A). The findings corroborate the claim from Bayesian models that attention mediates sensory attenuation. The results also highlight the paradoxes in Bayesian proposals of perception-action interaction.

Spatial and Temporal Context Jointly Modulate the Sensory Response within the Ventral Visual Stream

Both spatial and temporal context play an important role in visual perception and behavior. Humans can extract statistical regularities from both forms of context to help process the present and to construct expectations about the future. Numerous studies have found reduced neural responses to expected stimuli compared with unexpected stimuli, for both spatial and temporal regularities. However, it is largely unclear whether and how these forms of context interact. In the current fMRI study, 33 human volunteers were exposed to pairs of object stimuli that could be expected or surprising in terms of their spatial and temporal context. We found reliable independent contributions of both spatial and temporal context in modulating the neural response. Specifically, neural responses to stimuli in expected compared with unexpected contexts were suppressed throughout the ventral visual stream. These results suggest that both spatial and temporal context may aid sensory processing in a similar fashion, providing evidence on how different types of context jointly modulate perceptual processing.

Action Enhances Predicted Touch

It is widely believed that predicted tactile action outcomes are perceptually attenuated. The present experiments determined whether predictive mechanisms necessarily generate attenuation or, instead, can enhance perception-as typically observed in sensory cognition domains outside of action. We manipulated probabilistic expectations in a paradigm often used to demonstrate tactile attenuation. Adult participants produced actions and subsequently rated the intensity of forces on a static finger. Experiment 1 confirmed previous findings that action outcomes are perceived less intensely than passive stimulation but demonstrated more intense perception when active finger stimulation was removed. Experiments 2 and 3 manipulated prediction explicitly and found that expected touch during action is perceived more intensely than unexpected touch. Computational modeling suggested that expectations increase the gain afforded to expected tactile signals. These findings challenge a central tenet of prominent motor control theories and demonstrate that sensorimotor predictions do not exhibit a qualitatively distinct influence on tactile perception.

Implicit learning of temporal behavior in complex dynamic environments

Humans can automatically detect and learn to exploit repeated aspects (regularities) of the environment. Timing research suggests that such learning is not only used to anticipate what will happen, but also when it will happen. However, in timing experiments, the intervals to be timed are presented in isolation from other stimuli and explicitly cued, contrasting with naturalistic environments in which intervals are embedded in a constant stream of events and individuals are hardly aware of them. It is unclear whether laboratory findings from timing research translate to a more ecologically valid, implicit environment. Here we show in a game-like experiment, specifically designed to measure naturalistic behavior, that participants implicitly use regular intervals to anticipate future events, even when these intervals are constantly interrupted by irregular yet behaviorally relevant events. This finding extends previous research by showing that individuals not only detect such regularities but can also use this knowledge to decide when to act in a complex environment. Furthermore, this finding demonstrates that this type of learning can occur independently from the ordinal sequence of motor actions, which contrasts this work with earlier motor learning studies. Taken together, our results demonstrate that regularities in the time between events are implicitly monitored and used to predict and act on what happens when, thereby showing that laboratory findings from timing research can generalize to naturalistic environments. Additionally, with the development of our game-like experiment, we demonstrate an approach to test cognitive theories in less controlled, ecologically more valid environments.

Statistical learning of target selection and distractor suppression shape attentional priority according to different timeframes

Recent findings suggest that attentional and oculomotor control is heavily affected by past experience, giving rise to selection and suppression history effects, so that target selection is facilitated if they appear at frequently attended locations, and distractor filtering is facilitated at frequently ignored locations. While selection history effects once instantiated seem to be long-lasting, whether suppression history is similarly durable is still debated. We assessed the permanence of these effects in a unique experimental setting investigating eye-movements, where the locations associated with statistical unbalances were exclusively linked with either target selection or distractor suppression. Experiment 1 and 2 explored the survival of suppression history in the long and in the short term, respectively, revealing that its lingering traces are relatively short lived. Experiment 3 showed that in the very same experimental context, selection history effects were long lasting. These results seem to suggest that different mechanisms support the learning-induced plasticity triggered by selection and suppression history. Specifically, while selection history may depend on lasting changes within stored representations of the visual space, suppression history effects hinge instead on a functional plasticity which is transient in nature, and involves spatial representations which are constantly updated and adaptively sustain ongoing oculomotor control.

Adapting non-invasive human recordings along multiple task-axes shows unfolding of spontaneous and over-trained choice

Choices rely on a transformation of sensory inputs into motor responses. Using invasive single neuron recordings, the evolution of a choice process has been tracked by projecting population neural responses into state spaces. Here, we develop an approach that allows us to recover similar trajectories on a millisecond timescale in non-invasive human recordings. We selectively suppress activity related to three task-axes, relevant and irrelevant sensory inputs and response direction, in magnetoencephalography data acquired during context-dependent choices. Recordings from premotor cortex show a progression from processing sensory input to processing the response. In contrast to previous macaque recordings, information related to choice-irrelevant features is represented more weakly than choice-relevant sensory information. To test whether this mechanistic difference between species is caused by extensive over-training common in non-human primate studies, we trained humans on >20,000 trials of the task. Choice-irrelevant features were still weaker than relevant features in premotor cortex after over-training.

Neural integration underlying naturalistic prediction flexibly adapts to varying sensory input rate

Prediction of future sensory input based on past sensory information is essential for organisms to effectively adapt their behavior in dynamic environments. Humans successfully predict future stimuli in various natural settings. Yet, it remains elusive how the brain achieves effective prediction despite enormous variations in sensory input rate, which directly affect how fast sensory information can accumulate. We presented participants with acoustic sequences capturing temporal statistical regularities prevalent in nature and investigated neural mechanisms underlying predictive computation using MEG. By parametrically manipulating sequence presentation speed, we tested two hypotheses: neural prediction relies on integrating past sensory information over fixed time periods or fixed amounts of information. We demonstrate that across halved and doubled presentation speeds, predictive information in neural activity stems from integration over fixed amounts of information. Our findings reveal the neural mechanisms enabling humans to robustly predict dynamic stimuli in natural environments despite large sensory input rate variations.

Sequence learning recodes cortical representations instead of strengthening initial ones

We contrast two computational models of sequence learning. The associative learner posits that learning proceeds by strengthening existing association weights. Alternatively, recoding posits that learning creates new and more efficient representations of the learned sequences. Importantly, both models propose that humans act as optimal learners but capture different statistics of the stimuli in their internal model. Furthermore, these models make dissociable predictions as to how learning changes the neural representation of sequences. We tested these predictions by using fMRI to extract neural activity patterns from the dorsal visual processing stream during a sequence recall task. We observed that only the recoding account can explain the similarity of neural activity patterns, suggesting that participants recode the learned sequences using chunks. We show that associative learning can theoretically store only very limited number of overlapping sequences, such as common in ecological working memory tasks, and hence an efficient learner should recode initial sequence representations.

Deep Predictive Learning in Neocortex and Pulvinar

How do humans learn from raw sensory experience? Throughout life, but most obviously in infancy, we learn without explicit instruction. We propose a detailed biological mechanism for the widely embraced idea that learning is driven by the differences between predictions and actual outcomes (i.e., predictive error-driven learning). Specifically, numerous weak projections into the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus generate top-down predictions, and sparse driver inputs from lower areas supply the actual outcome, originating in Layer 5 intrinsic bursting neurons. Thus, the outcome representation is only briefly activated, roughly every 100 msec (i.e., 10 Hz, alpha), resulting in a temporal difference error signal, which drives local synaptic changes throughout the neocortex. This results in a biologically plausible form of error backpropagation learning. We implemented these mechanisms in a large-scale model of the visual system and found that the simulated inferotemporal pathway learns to systematically categorize 3-D objects according to invariant shape properties, based solely on predictive learning from raw visual inputs. These categories match human judgments on the same stimuli and are consistent with neural representations in inferotemporal cortex in primates.

Sensory Attenuation in Sport and Rehabilitation: Perspective from Research in Parkinson's Disease

People with Parkinson's disease (PD) experience motor symptoms that are affected by sensory information in the environment. Sensory attenuation describes the modulation of sensory input caused by motor intent. This appears to be altered in PD and may index important sensorimotor processes underpinning PD symptoms. We review recent findings investigating sensory attenuation and reconcile seemingly disparate results with an emphasis on task-relevance in the modulation of sensory input. Sensory attenuation paradigms, across different sensory modalities, capture how two identical stimuli can elicit markedly different perceptual experiences depending on our predictions of the event, but also the context in which the event occurs. In particular, it appears as though contextual information may be used to suppress or facilitate a response to a stimulus on the basis of task-relevance. We support this viewpoint by considering the role of the basal ganglia in task-relevant sensory filtering and the use of contextual signals in complex environments to shape action and perception. This perspective highlights the dual effect of basal ganglia dysfunction in PD, whereby a reduced capacity to filter task-relevant signals harms the ability to integrate contextual cues, just when such cues are required to effectively navigate and interact with our environment. Finally, we suggest how this framework might be used to establish principles for effective rehabilitation in the treatment of PD.

Evaluating the evidence for expectation suppression in the visual system

Reports of expectation suppression have shaped the development of influential predictive coding-based theories of visual perception. However recent work has highlighted confounding factors that may mimic or inflate expectation suppression effects. In this review, we describe four confounds that are prevalent across experiments that tested for expectation suppression: effects of surprise, attention, stimulus repetition and adaptation, and stimulus novelty. With these confounds in mind we then critically review the evidence for expectation suppression across probabilistic cueing, statistical learning, oddball, action-outcome learning and apparent motion designs. We found evidence for expectation suppression within a specific subset of statistical learning designs that involved weeks of sequence learning prior to neural activity measurement. Across other experimental contexts, whereby stimulus appearance probabilities were learned within one or two testing sessions, there was inconsistent evidence for genuine expectation suppression. We discuss how an absence of expectation suppression could inform models of predictive processing, repetition suppression and perceptual decision-making. We also provide suggestions for designing experiments that may better test for expectation suppression in future work.

Improving the sensitivity of cluster-based statistics for functional magnetic resonance imaging data

Because of the high dimensionality of neuroimaging data, identifying a statistical test that is both valid and maximally sensitive is an important challenge. Here, we present a combination of two approaches for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data analysis that together result in substantial improvements of the sensitivity of cluster‐based statistics. The first approach is to create novel cluster definitions that optimize sensitivity to plausible effect patterns. The second is to adopt a new approach to combine test statistics with different sensitivity profiles, which we call the min(p) method. These innovations are made possible by using the randomization inference framework. In this article, we report on a set of simulations and analyses of real task fMRI data that demonstrate (a) that the proposed methods control the false‐alarm rate, (b) that the sensitivity profiles of cluster‐based test statistics vary depending on the cluster defining thresholds and cluster definitions, and (c) that the min(p) method for combining these test statistics results in a drastic increase of sensitivity (up to fivefold), compared to existing fMRI analysis methods. This increase in sensitivity is not at the expense of the spatial specificity of the inference.

Can expectation suppression be explained by reduced attention to predictable stimuli?

The expectation-suppression effect - reduced stimulus-evoked responses to expected stimuli - is widely considered to be an empirical hallmark of reduced prediction errors in the framework of predictive coding. Here we challenge this notion by proposing that that expectation suppression could be explained by a reduced attention effect. Specifically, we argue that reduced responses to predictable stimuli can also be explained by a reduced saliency-driven allocation of attention. We base our discussion mainly on findings in the visual cortex and propose that resolving this controversy requires the assessment of qualitative differences between the ways in which attention and surprise enhance brain responses.

Prior expectations evoke stimulus-specific activity in the deep layers of the primary visual cortex

The way we perceive the world is strongly influenced by our expectations. In line with this, much recent research has revealed that prior expectations strongly modulate sensory processing. However, the neural circuitry through which the brain integrates external sensory inputs with internal expectation signals remains unknown. In order to understand the computational architecture of the cortex, we need to investigate the way these signals flow through the cortical layers. This is crucial because the different cortical layers have distinct intra- and interregional connectivity patterns, and therefore determining which layers are involved in a cortical computation can inform us on the sources and targets of these signals. Here, we used ultra-high field (7T) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to reveal that prior expectations evoke stimulus-specific activity selectively in the deep layers of the primary visual cortex (V1). These findings are in line with predictive processing theories proposing that neurons in the deep cortical layers represent perceptual hypotheses and thereby shed light on the computational architecture of cortex.

The way we perceive the world is strongly influenced by our expectations, but the neural circuitry through which the brain achieves this remains unknown. A study using ultra-high field fMRI reveals that prior expectations evoke stimulus-specific signals in the deep layers of the primary visual cortex.

Cortical beta oscillations reflect the contextual gating of visual action feedback

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We decouple seen and felt hand postures during action via virtual reality.

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Vision of the hand is either task-relevant or a distractor.

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Task-relevance of vision is reflected by in- or decreases of occipital beta power.

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DCM suggests underlying changes in cortical (visual) excitability.

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Occipital beta may indicate the contextual gating of visual action feedback.

In sensorimotor integration, the brain needs to decide how its predictions should accommodate novel evidence by ‘gating’ sensory data depending on the current context. Here, we examined the oscillatory correlates of this process by recording magnetoencephalography (MEG) data during a new task requiring action under intersensory conflict. We used virtual reality to decouple visual (virtual) and proprioceptive (real) hand postures during a task in which the phase of grasping movements tracked a target (in either modality). Thus, we rendered visual information either task-relevant or a (to-be-ignored) distractor. Under visuo-proprioceptive incongruence, occipital beta power decreased (relative to congruence) when vision was task-relevant but increased when it had to be ignored. Dynamic causal modeling (DCM) revealed that this interaction was best explained by diametrical, task-dependent changes in visual gain. These results suggest a crucial role for beta oscillations in the contextual gating (i.e., gain or precision control) of visual vs proprioceptive action feedback, depending on current behavioral demands.

Integrating when and what information in the left parietal lobe allows language rule generalization

A crucial aspect when learning a language is discovering the rules that govern how words are combined in order to convey meanings. Because rules are characterized by sequential co-occurrences between elements (e.g., “These cupcakes are unbelievable”), tracking the statistical relationships between these elements is fundamental. However, purely bottom-up statistical learning alone cannot fully account for the ability to create abstract rule representations that can be generalized, a paramount requirement of linguistic rules. Here, we provide evidence that, after the statistical relations between words have been extracted, the engagement of goal-directed attention is key to enable rule generalization. Incidental learning performance during a rule-learning task on an artificial language revealed a progressive shift from statistical learning to goal-directed attention. In addition, and consistent with the recruitment of attention, functional MRI (fMRI) analyses of late learning stages showed left parietal activity within a broad bilateral dorsal frontoparietal network. Critically, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on participants’ peak of activation within the left parietal cortex impaired their ability to generalize learned rules to a structurally analogous new language. No stimulation or rTMS on a nonrelevant brain region did not have the same interfering effect on generalization. Performance on an additional attentional task showed that this rTMS on the parietal site hindered participants’ ability to integrate “what” (stimulus identity) and “when” (stimulus timing) information about an expected target. The present findings suggest that learning rules from speech is a two-stage process: following statistical learning, goal-directed attention—involving left parietal regions—integrates “what” and “when” stimulus information to facilitate rapid rule generalization.

This study uses repetitive transcranial stimulation to show that learning language rules from speech is a two-stage process; following statistical learning, goal-directed attention (involving left parietal regions) integrates "what" and "when" stimulus information to facilitate rapid rule generalization.

Visual mismatch responses index surprise signalling but not expectation suppression

The ability to distinguish between commonplace and unusual sensory events is critical for efficient learning and adaptive behaviour. This has been investigated using oddball designs in which sequences of often-appearing (i.e., expected) stimuli are interspersed with rare (i.e., surprising) deviants. Resulting differences in electrophysiological responses following surprising compared to expected stimuli are known as visual mismatch responses (VMRs). VMRs are thought to index co-occurring contributions of stimulus repetition effects, expectation suppression (that occurs when one's expectations are fulfilled), and expectation violation (i.e., surprise) responses; however, these different effects have been conflated in existing oddball designs. To better isolate and quantify effects of expectation suppression and surprise, we adapted an oddball design based on Fast Periodic Visual Stimulation (FPVS) that controls for stimulus repetition effects. We recorded electroencephalography (EEG) while participants (N = 48) viewed stimulation sequences in which a single face identity was periodically presented at 6 Hz. Critically, one of two different face identities (termed oddballs) appeared as every 7th image throughout the sequence. The presentation probabilities of each oddball image within a sequence varied between 10 and 90%, such that participants could form expectations about which oddball face identity was more likely to appear within each sequence. We also included 'expectation neutral' 50% probability sequences, whereby consistently biased expectations would not be formed for either oddball face identity. We found that VMRs indexed surprise responses, and effects of expectation suppression were absent. That is, ERPs were more negative-going at occipitoparietal electrodes for surprising compared to neutral oddballs, but did not differ between expected and neutral oddballs. Surprising oddball-evoked ERPs were also highly similar across the 10-40% appearance probability conditions. Our findings indicate that VMRs which are not accounted for by repetition effects are best described as an all-or-none surprise response, rather than a minimisation of prediction error responses associated with expectation suppression.

Statistical Learning Signals for Complex Visual Images in Macaque Early Visual Cortex

Animals of several species, including primates, learn the statistical regularities of their environment. In particular, they learn the temporal regularities that occur in streams of visual images. Previous human neuroimaging studies reported discrepant effects of such statistical learning, ranging from stronger occipito-temporal activations for sequences in which image order was fixed, compared with sequences of randomly ordered images, to weaker activations for fixed-order sequences compared with sequences that violated the learned order. Several single-unit studies in macaque monkeys reported that after statistical learning of temporal regularities, inferior temporal (IT) neurons show reduced responses to learned fixed-order sequences of visual images compared with random or mispredicted sequences. However, it is unknown how other macaque brain areas respond to such temporal statistical regularities. To address this gap, we exposed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to two types of sequences of complex images. The “regular” sequences consisted of a continuous stream of quartets, and within each quartet, the image order was fixed. The quartets themselves were displayed, uninterrupted, in a random order. The same monkeys were exposed to sequences of other images having a pseudorandomized order (“random” sequence). After exposure, both monkeys were scanned with functional MRI (fMRI) using a block design with three conditions: regular sequence, random sequence, and fixation-only blocks. A whole-brain analysis showed a reduced activation in mainly the occipito-temporal cortex for the regular compared to the random sequences. Marked response reductions for the regular sequence were observed in early extrastriate visual cortical areas, including area V2, despite the use of rather complex images of animals. These data suggest that statistical learning signals are already present in early visual areas of monkeys, even for complex visual images. These monkey fMRI data are in line with recent human fMRI studies that showed a reduced activation in early visual areas for predicted compared with mispredicted complex images.

Perceptual Expectations Modulate Low-Frequency Activity: A Statistical Learning Magnetoencephalography Study

Perceptual expectations can change how a visual stimulus is perceived. Recent studies have shown mixed results in terms of whether expectations modulate sensory representations. Here, we used a statistical learning paradigm to study the temporal characteristics of perceptual expectations. We presented participants with pairs of object images organized in a predictive manner and then recorded their brain activity with magnetoencephalography while they viewed expected and unexpected image pairs on the subsequent day. We observed stronger alpha-band (7-14 Hz) activity in response to unexpected compared with expected object images. Specifically, the alpha-band modulation occurred as early as the onset of the stimuli and was most pronounced in left occipito-temporal cortex. Given that the differential response to expected versus unexpected stimuli occurred in sensory regions early in time, our results suggest that expectations modulate perceptual decision-making by changing the sensory response elicited by the stimuli.