m6A RNA methylation impacts fate choices during skin morphogenesis

Act1 drives chemoresistance via regulation of antioxidant RNA metabolism and redox homeostasis

The IL-17 receptor adaptor molecule Act1, an RNA-binding protein, plays a critical role in IL-17-mediated cancer progression. Here, we report a novel mechanism of how IL-17/Act1 induces chemoresistance by modulating redox homeostasis through epitranscriptomic regulation of antioxidant RNA metabolism. Transcriptome-wide mapping of direct Act1-RNA interactions revealed that Act1 binds to the 5'UTR of antioxidant mRNAs and Wilms' tumor 1-associating protein (WTAP), a key regulator in m6A methyltransferase complex. Strikingly, Act1's binding sites are located in proximity to m6A modification sites, which allows Act1 to promote the recruitment of elF3G for cap-independent translation. Loss of Act1's RNA binding activity or Wtap knockdown abolished IL-17-induced m6A modification and translation of Wtap and antioxidant mRNAs, indicating a feedforward mechanism of the Act1-WTAP loop. We then developed antisense oligonucleotides (Wtap ASO) that specifically disrupt Act1's binding to Wtap mRNA, abolishing IL-17/Act1-WTAP-mediated antioxidant protein production during chemotherapy. Wtap ASO substantially increased the antitumor efficacy of cisplatin, demonstrating a potential therapeutic strategy for chemoresistance.

ASH2L mediates epidermal differentiation and hair follicle morphogenesis via H3K4me3 modification

The processes of epidermal development in mammals are regulated by complex molecular mechanisms, such as histone modifications. Histone H3 lysine K4 (H3K4) methylation mediated by COMPASS methyltransferase is associated with gene activation, but its effect on epidermal lineage development remains unclear. Therefore, we constructed a mouse model of specific ASH2L (COMPASS methyltransferase core subunit) deletion in epidermal progenitor cells and investigated its effect on the development of mouse epidermal lineage. Furthermore, downstream target genes regulated by H3K4me3 were screened using RNA-sequencing combined with Cleavage Under Targets and Tagmentation (CUT&Tag) sequencing. Deletion of ASH2L in epidermal progenitor cells caused thinning of the suprabasal layer of the epidermis and delayed hair follicle morphogenesis in newborn mice. These phenotypes may be related to the reduced proliferative capacity of epidermal and hair follicle progenitor cells. ASH2L depletion may also lead to depletion of the epidermal stem cell pools in late mouse development. Finally, genes related to hair follicle development (Shh, Edar and Fzd6), Notch signaling pathway (Notch2, Notch3, Hes5 and Nrarp) and ΔNp63 were identified as downstream target genes regulated by H3K4me3. Collectively, ASH2L-dependent H3K4me3 modification served as an upstream epigenetic regulator in epidermal differentiation and hair follicle morphogenesis in mice.

Regulatory role of m6A epitranscriptomic modifications in normal development and congenital malformations during embryogenesis

The discovery of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation and its role in translation has led to the emergence of a new field of research. Despite accumulating evidence suggesting that m6A methylation is essential for the pathogenesis of cancers and aging diseases by influencing RNA stability, localization, transformation, and translation efficiency, its role in normal and abnormal embryonic development remains unclear. An increasing number of studies are addressing the development of the nervous and gonadal systems during embryonic development, but only few are assessing that of the immune, hematopoietic, urinary, and respiratory systems. Additionally, these studies are limited by the requirement for reliable embryonic animal models and the difficulty in collecting tissue samples of fetuses during development. Multiple studies on the function of m6A methylation have used suitable cell lines to mimic the complex biological processes of fetal development or the early postnatal phase; hence, the research is still in the primary stage. Herein, we discuss current advances in the extensive biological functions of m6A methylation in the development and maldevelopment of embryos/fetuses and conclude that m6A modification occurs extensively during fetal development. Aberrant expression of m6A regulators is probably correlated with single or multiple defects in organogenesis during the intrauterine life. This comprehensive review will enhance our understanding of the pivotal role of m6A modifications involved in fetal development and examine future research directions in embryogenesis.

Epigenetic modification: A novel insight into diabetic wound healing

Wound healing is an intricate and fine regulatory process. In diabetic patients, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), biofilm formation, persistent inflammation, and angiogenesis regression contribute to delayed wound healing. Epigenetics, the fast-moving science in the 21st century, has been up to date and associated with diabetic wound repair. In this review, we go over the functions of epigenetics in diabetic wound repair in retrospect, covering transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation. Among these, we found that histone modification is widely involved in inflammation and angiogenesis by affecting macrophages and endothelial cells. DNA methylation is involved in factors regulation in wound repair but also affects the differentiation phenotype of cells in hyperglycemia. In addition, noncodingRNA regulation and RNA modification in diabetic wound repair were also generalized. The future prospects for epigenetic applications are discussed in the end. In conclusion, the study suggests that epigenetics is an integral regulatory mechanism in diabetic wound healing.

Gamma-Secretase Inhibitors Downregulate the Profibrotic NOTCH Signaling Pathway in Recessive Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa

Recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (RDEB) is a rare skin fragility disorder caused by mutations in COL7A1. RDEB is hallmarked by trauma-induced unremitting blistering, chronic wounds with inflammation, and progressive fibrosis, leading to severe disease complications. There is currently no cure for RDEB-associated fibrosis. Our previous studies and increasing evidence highlighted the profibrotic role of NOTCH pathway in different skin disorders, including RDEB. In this study, we further investigated the role of NOTCH signaling in RDEB pathogenesis and explored the effects of its inhibition by γ-secretase inhibitors DAPT and PF-03084014 (nirogacestat). Our analyses demonstrated that JAG1 and cleaved NOTCH1 are upregulated in primary RDEB fibroblasts (ie, RDEB-derived fibroblasts) compared with controls, and their protein levels are further increased by TGF-β1 stimulation. Functional assays unveiled the involvement of JAG1/NOTCH1 axis in RDEB fibrosis and demonstrated that its blockade counteracts a variety of fibrotic traits. In particular, RDEB-derived fibroblasts treated with PF-03084014 showed (i) a significant reduction of contractility, (ii) a diminished secretion of TGF-β1 and collagens, and (iii) the downregulation of several fibrotic proteins. Although less marked than PF-03084014-treated cells, RDEB-derived fibroblasts exhibited a reduction of fibrotic traits also upon DAPT treatment. This study provides potential therapeutic strategies to antagonize RDEB fibrosis onset and progression.

METTL14-mediated N6-methyladenosine modification of Col17a1/Itgα6/Itgβ4 governs epidermal homeostasis

BACKGROUND

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant and reversible modification occurring in eukaryotic mRNAs, however, its functions in mammalian epidermal development are still not fully elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the role of METTL14 (Methyltransferase like 14), one of the m6A methyltransferases, in maintaining epidermal homeostasis.

METHODS

We constructed mice with Mettl14-inactivation in the epidermal basal cells. The phenotype was explored by H&E staining and immunofluorescence staining. To explore the underlying mechanisms, we performed RNA-seq, Ribosome profiling and MeRIP-seq on wild-type and Mettl14-inactivation epidermal keratinocytes. Moreover, HaCaT cells were used for in vitro validation.

RESULTS

Inactivation of Mettl14 in murine epidermis led to transient thicker epidermis and exhaustion of the epidermal stem cell pool. Interestingly, we found that the mRNA of type XVII collagen (Col17a1), integrin β4 (Itgβ4) and α6 (Itgα6) had m6A modifications, and the proteins expression were decreased in Mettl14-inactivated epidermis. Furthermore, in epidermis-specific Mettl4-inactivated mice, the epidermis was detached from the dermis and presented a phenotype similar to junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB), which may result from hemidesmosomes damage (decrease of COL17A1, ITGB4 and ITGA6). Knockdown of Mettl14 in HaCaT cells impaired the self-renewal and decreased the protein level of COL17A1, ITGB4 and ITGA6 and Itgβ4 knockdown inhibited colony formation.

CONCLUSION

Our study highlighted the role of METTL14 in the maintenance of epidermal homeostasis and identified its critical role through m6A-mediated translational inhibition of Col17a1, Itgβ4 and Itgα6. Our study suggested that METTL14 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of hemidesmosomes-deficient diseases, such as JEB.

METTL3-regulated m6A modification impairs the decidualization of endometrial stromal cells by regulating YTHDF2-mediated degradation of FOXO1 mRNA in endometriosis-related infertility

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis-related infertility is a common worldwide reproductive health concern. Despite ongoing research, the causes of infertility remain unclear. Evidence suggests that epigenetic regulation is crucial in reproduction. However, the role of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification of RNA in endometriosis-related infertility requires further investigation.

METHODS

We examined the expression of m6A and methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) in endometrial samples taken from normal fertile women in the proliferative phase (the NP group) or the mid-secretory phase (the NS group) or from women with endometriosis-related infertility at the mid-secretory phase (the ES group). We treated primary endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) with medroxyprogesterone acetate and 8-Bromo-cyclic adenosine monophosphate for in vitro decidualization and detected the expression of m6A, METTL3, and decidual markers. We analyzed the expression of m6A, METTL3, and forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) in ESCs from normal fertile women (the ND group) or women with endometriosis-related infertility (the ED group). We also assessed the expression of m6A, METTL3, and decidual markers, as well as the embryo adhesion rate, upon METTL3 overexpression or knockdown. Additionally, we investigated the role of METTL3 in embryo implantation in vivo by applying mice with endometriosis. Furthermore, we performed RNA stability assays, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), and methylated RIP assays to explore the mechanisms underlying the regulation of FOXO1 by METTL3-mediated m6A.

RESULTS

The expression of m6A and METTL3 was reduced only in the NS group; the NP and ES groups demonstrated increased m6A and METTL3 levels. m6A and METTL3 levels decreased in ESCs with prolonged decidual treatment. Compared to the ND group, m6A and METTL3 levels in the ED group increased after decidual treatment, whereas the expression of FOXO1 decreased. METTL3 overexpression suppressed the expression of decidual markers and embryo implantation in vitro; METTL3 knockdown exhibited the opposite effect. Inhibition of METTL3 promoted embryo implantation in vivo. Furthermore, we observed that METTL3-mediated m6A regulated the degradation of FOXO1 mRNA through YTHDF2, a m6A binding protein.

CONCLUSIONS

METTL3-regulated m6A promotes YTHDF2-mediated decay of FOXO1 mRNA, thereby affecting cellular decidualization and embryo implantation. These findings provide novel insights into the development of therapies for women with endometriosis-related infertility.

Mettl3-catalyzed m6A regulates histone modifier and modification expression in self-renewing somatic tissue

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant modification on messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and is catalyzed by methyltransferase-like protein 3 (Mettl3). To understand the role of m6A in a self-renewing somatic tissue, we deleted Mettl3 in epidermal progenitors in vivo. Mice lacking Mettl3 demonstrate marked features of dysfunctional development and self-renewal, including a loss of hair follicle morphogenesis and impaired cell adhesion and polarity associated with oral ulcerations. We show that Mettl3 promotes the m6A-mediated degradation of mRNAs encoding critical histone modifying enzymes. Depletion of Mettl3 results in the loss of m6A on these mRNAs and increases their expression and associated modifications, resulting in widespread gene expression abnormalities that mirror the gross phenotypic abnormalities. Collectively, these results have identified an additional layer of gene regulation within epithelial tissues, revealing an essential role for m6A in the regulation of chromatin modifiers, and underscoring a critical role for Mettl3-catalyzed m6A in proper epithelial development and self-renewal.

ALKBH5-mediated m6A demethylation fuels cutaneous wound re-epithelialization by enhancing PELI2 mRNA stability

BACKGROUND

Impaired wound re-epithelialization contributes to cutaneous barrier reconstruction dysfunction. Recently, N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) RNA modification has been shown to participate in the determination of RNA fate, and its aberration triggers the pathogenesis of numerous diseases. Howbeit, the function of m⁶A in wound re-epithelialization remains enigmatic.

METHODS

Alkbh5^‒/‒ mouse was constructed to study the rate of wound re-epithelialization after ALKBH5 ablation. Integrated high-throughput analysis combining methylated RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeRIP-seq) and RNA-seq was used to identify the downstream target of ALKBH5. In vitro and in vivo rescue experiments were conducted to verify the role of the downstream target on the functional phenotype of ALKBH5-deficient cells or animals. Furthermore, the interacting reader protein and regulatory mechanisms were determined through RIP-qPCR, RNA pull-down, and RNA stability assays.

RESULTS

ALKBH5 was specifically upregulated in the wound edge epidermis. Ablation of ALKBH5 suppressed keratinocyte migration and resulted in delayed wound re-epithelialization in Alkbh5^‒/‒ mouse. Integrated high-throughput analysis revealed that PELI2, an E3 ubiquitin protein ligase, serves as the downstream target of ALKBH5. Concordantly, exogenous PELI2 supplementation partially rescued keratinocyte migration and accelerated re-epithelialization in ALKBH5-deficient cells, both in vitro and in vivo. In terms of its mechanism, ALKBH5 promoted PELI2 expression by removing the m⁶A modification from PELI2 mRNA and enhancing its stability in a YTHDF2-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies ALKBH5 as an endogenous accelerator of wound re-epithelialization, thereby benefiting the development of a reprogrammed m⁶A targeted therapy for refractory wounds.

Evolution of m6A-related genes in insects and the function of METTL3 in silkworm embryonic development

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) plays a key role in many biological processes. However, the function and evolutionary relationship of m6A-related genes in insects remain largely unknown. Here we analysed the phylogeny of m6A-related genes among 207 insect species and found that m6A-related genes are evolutionarily conserved in insects. Subcellular localization experiments of m6A-related proteins in BmN cells confirmed that BmYTHDF3 was localized in the cytoplasm, BmMETTL3, BmMETTL14, and BmYTHDC were localized in the nucleus, and FL2D was localized to both the nucleus and cytoplasm. We examined the expression patterns of m6A-related genes during the embryonic development of Bombyx mori. To elucidate the function of BmMETTL3 during the embryonic stage, RNA sequencing was performed to measure changes in gene expression in silkworm eggs after BmMETTL3 knockdown, as well as in BmN cells overexpressing BmMETTL3. The global transcriptional pattern showed that knockdown of BmMETTL3 affected multiple cellular processes, including oxidoreductase activity, transcription regulator activity, and the cation binding. In addition, transcriptomic data revealed that many observed DEGs were associated with fundamental metabolic processes, including carbon metabolism, purine metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, and the citrate cycle. Interestingly, we found that knockdown of BmMETTL3 significantly affected Wnt and Toll/Imd pathways in embryos. Taken together, these results suggest that BmMETTL3 plays an essential role in the embryonic development of B. mori, and deepen our understanding of the function of m6A-related genes in insects.

Research Progress of m6A RNA Methylation in Skin Diseases

N⁶-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most common mRNA modification in eukaryotes and is a dynamically reversible posttranscriptional modification. The enzymes involved in m⁶A modification mainly include methyltransferases (writers), demethylases (erasers), and methylated readers (Readers). m⁶A modification is mainly catalyzed by m⁶A methyltransferase and removed by m⁶A demethylase. The modified RNA can be specifically recognized and bound by m⁶A recognition protein. This protein complex then mediates RNA splicing, maturation, nucleation, degradation, and translation. m⁶A also alters gene expression and regulates cellular processes such as self-renewal, differentiation, invasion, and apoptosis. An increasing body of evidence indicates that the m⁶A methylation modification process is closely related to the occurrence of various skin diseases. In this review, we discuss the role of m⁶A methylation in skin development and skin diseases including psoriasis, melanoma, and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.

The m6A-methylated mRNA pattern and the activation of the Wnt signaling pathway under the hyper-m6A-modifying condition in the keloid

Purpose: The present study was carried out to investigate the global m⁶A-modified RNA pattern and possible mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of keloid. Method: In total, 14 normal skin and 14 keloid tissue samples were first collected on clinics. Then, three samples from each group were randomly selected to be verified with the Western blotting to determine the level of methyltransferase and demethylase. The total RNA of all samples in each group was isolated and subjected to the analysis of MeRIP sequencing and RNA sequencing. Using software of MeTDiff and htseq-count, the m⁶A peaks and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined within the fold change >2 and p-value < 0.05. The top 10 pathways of m⁶A-modified genes in each group and the differentially expressed genes were enriched by the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes signaling pathways. Finally, the closely associated pathway was determined using the Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. Results: There was a higher protein level of WTAP and Mettl3 in the keloid than in the normal tissue. In the keloid samples, 21,020 unique m⁶A peaks with 6,573 unique m⁶A-associated genetic transcripts appeared. In the normal tissue, 4,028 unique m⁶A peaks with 779 m⁶A-associated modified genes appeared. In the RNA sequencing, there were 847 genes significantly changed between these groups, transcriptionally. The genes with m⁶A-methylated modification and the upregulated differentially expressed genes between two tissues were both mainly related to the Wnt signaling pathway. Moreover, the hyper-m⁶A-modified Wnt/β-catenin pathway in keloid was verified with Western blotting. From the immunofluorescence staining results, we found that the accumulated fibroblasts were under a hyper-m⁶A condition in the keloid, and the Wnt/β-Catenin signaling pathway was mainly activated in the fibroblasts. Conclusion: The fibroblasts in the keloid were under a cellular hyper-m⁶A-methylated condition, and the hyper-m⁶A-modified highly expressed Wnt/β-catenin pathway in the dermal fibroblasts might promote the pathogenesis of keloid.

Emerging roles of the RNA modifications N6-methyladenosine and adenosine-to-inosine in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases lead the mortality and morbidity disease metrics worldwide. A multitude of chemical base modifications in ribonucleic acids (RNAs) have been linked with key events of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders. Named either RNA epigenetics or epitranscriptomics, the post-transcriptional RNA modifications, their regulatory pathways, components, and downstream effects substantially contribute to the ways our genetic code is interpreted. Here we review the accumulated discoveries to date regarding the roles of the two most common epitranscriptomic modifications, N⁶-methyl-adenosine (m⁶A) and adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing, in cardiovascular disease.

m6A modification of mRNA in skin diseases

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the predominant post-transcriptional modification for eukaryotic mRNA. It's regulated by methyltransferases, demethylases, and m6A binding proteins, and plays an important role in regulating splicing, translation, and degradation of mRNA. Skin diseases, especially immune skin diseases and skin tumors, have a complicated pathogenesis and are refractory to treatment, seriously affecting the patient quality of life. Recent studies have revealed that m6A and its regulatory proteins can affect the development of numerous skin diseases. The m6A modification was found to be involved in skin accessory development, including hair follicle and sweat gland formation. The level of m6A modification was significantly altered in a variety of skin diseases including melanoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, and psoriasis, and affected a variety of biological processes including cell proliferation and differentiation migration. The m6A and its regulatory proteins may become potential molecular markers or therapeutic targets for skin diseases, and have promising clinical applications in early diagnosis, efficacy determination, prognosis prediction, and gene therapy of skin diseases.

The m6A methylation regulates gonadal sex differentiation in chicken embryo

Background

As a ubiquitous reversible epigenetic RNA modification, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) plays crucial regulatory roles in multiple biological pathways. However, its functional mechanisms in sex determination and differentiation during gonadal development of chicken embryos are not clear. Therefore, we established a transcriptome-wide m6A map in the female and male chicken left gonads of embryonic day 7 (E7) by methylated RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeRIP-seq) to offer insight into the landscape of m6A methylation and investigate the post-transcriptional modification underlying gonadal differentiation.

Results

The chicken embryonic gonadal transcriptome was extensively methylated. We found 15,191 and 16,111 m6A peaks in the female and male left gonads, respectively, which were mainly enriched in the coding sequence (CDS) and stop codon. Among these m6A peaks, we identified that 1013 and 751 were hypermethylated in females and males, respectively. These differential peaks covered 281 and 327 genes, such as BMP2, SMAD2, SOX9 and CYP19A1, which were primarily associated with development, morphogenesis and sex differentiation by functional enrichment. Further analysis revealed that the m6A methylation level was positively correlated with gene expression abundance. Furthermore, we found that YTHDC2 could regulate the expression of sex-related genes, especially HEMGN and SOX9, in male mesonephros/gonad mingle cells, which was verified by in vitro experiments, suggesting a regulatory role of m6A methylation in chicken gonad differentiation.

Conclusions

This work provided a comprehensive m6A methylation profile of chicken embryonic gonads and revealed YTHDC2 as a key regulator responsible for sex differentiation. Our results contribute to a better understanding of epigenetic factors involved in chicken sex determination and differentiation and to promoting the future development of sex manipulation in poultry industry.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40104-022-00710-6.

Function of m6A and its regulation of domesticated animals' complex traits

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most functionally important epigenetic modification in RNA. The m6A modification widely exists in mRNA and noncoding RNA, influences the mRNA processing, and regulates the secondary structure and maturation of noncoding RNA. Studies showed the important regulatory roles of m6A modification in animal's complex traits, such as development, immunity, and reproduction-related traits. As an important intermediate stage from animal genome to phenotype, the function of m6A in the complex trait formation of domestic animals cannot be neglected. This review discusses recent research advances on m6A modification in well-studied organisms, such as human and model organisms, and introduces m6A detection technologies, small-molecule inhibitors of m6A-related enzymes, interaction between m6A and other biological progresses, and the regulation mechanisms of m6A in domesticated animals' complex traits.

FIONA1 is an RNA N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase affecting Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis and flowering

BACKGROUND

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) mRNA modification is essential for mammalian and plant viability. The U6 m6A methyltransferases in other species regulate S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) homeostasis through installing m6A in pre-mRNAs of SAM synthetases. However, U6 m6A methyltransferase has not been characterized in Arabidopsis and little is known about its role in regulating photomorphogenesis and flowering.

RESULTS

Here we characterize that FIONA1 is an Arabidopsis U6 m6A methyltransferase that installs m6A in U6 snRNA and a small subset of poly(A)+ RNA. Disruption of FIONA1 leads to phytochrome signaling-dependent hypocotyl elongation and photoperiod-independent early flowering. Distinct from mammalian METTL16 and worm METT-10, FIONA1 neither installs m6A in the mRNAs of Arabidopsis SAM synthetases nor affects their transcript expression levels under normal or high SAM conditions. We confirm that FIONA1 can methylate plant mRNA m6A motifs in vitro and in vivo. We further show that FIONA1 installs m6A in several phenotypic related transcripts, thereby affecting downstream mRNA stability and regulating phytochrome signaling and floral transition.

CONCLUSION

FIONA1 is functional as a U6 m6A methyltransferase in Arabidopsis, distinct from mammalian METTL16 and worm METT-10. Our results demonstrate that FIONA1-mediated m6A post-transcriptional regulation is an autonomous regulator for flowering and phytochrome signaling-dependent photomorphogenesis.

Insights into N6-methyladenosine and programmed cell death in cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation, the most common form of internal RNA modification in eukaryotes, has gained increasing attention and become a hot research topic in recent years. M6A plays multifunctional roles in normal and abnormal biological processes, and its role may vary greatly depending on the position of the m6A motif. Programmed cell death (PCD) includes apoptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, necroptosis and ferroptosis, most of which involve the breakdown of the plasma membrane. Based on the implications of m6A methylation on PCD, the regulators and functional roles of m6A methylation were comprehensively studied and reported. In this review, we focus on the high-complexity links between m6A and different types of PCD pathways, which are then closely associated with the initiation, progression and resistance of cancer. Herein, clarifying the relationship between m6A and PCD is of great significance to provide novel strategies for cancer treatment, and has a great potential prospect of clinical application.

Emerging Role of Epitranscriptomics in Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its related complications are among the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide. Substantial studies have explored epigenetic regulation that is involved in the modifications of DNA and proteins, but RNA modifications in diabetes are still poorly investigated. In recent years, posttranscriptional epigenetic modification of RNA (the so-called 'epitranscriptome') has emerged as an interesting field of research. Numerous modifications, mainly N⁶ -methyladenosine (m⁶A), have been identified in nearly all types of RNAs and have been demonstrated to have an indispensable effect in a variety of human diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and diabetes. Therefore, it is particularly important to understand the molecular basis of RNA modifications, which might provide a new perspective for the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and the discovery of new therapeutic targets. In this review, we aim to summarize the recent progress in the epitranscriptomics involved in diabetes and diabetes-related complications. We hope to provide some insights for enriching the understanding of the epitranscriptomic regulatory mechanisms of this disease as well as the development of novel therapeutic targets for future clinical benefit.

The m6A RNA Modification Modulates Gene Expression and Fibrosis-Related Pathways in Hypertrophic Scar

Purpose: To systematically analyze the overall m⁶A modification pattern in hyperplastic scars (HS). Methods: The m⁶A modification patterns in HS and normal skin (NS) tissues were described by m⁶A sequencing and RNA sequencing, and subsequently bioinformatics analysis was performed. The m⁶A-related RNA was immunoprecipitated and verified by real-time quantitative PCR. Results: The appearance of 14,791 new m⁶A peaks in the HS sample was accompanied by the disappearance of 7,835 peaks. The unique m⁶A-related genes in HS were thus associated with fibrosis-related pathways. We identified the differentially expressed mRNA transcripts in HS samples with hyper-methylated or hypo-methylated m⁶A peaks. Conclusion: This study is the first to map the m⁶A transcriptome of human HS, which may help clarify the possible mechanism of m⁶A-mediated gene expression regulation.

Methyltransferases in the Pathogenesis of Keratinocyte Cancers

Recent evidence suggests that the disruption of gene expression by alterations in DNA, RNA, and histone methylation may be critical contributors to the pathogenesis of keratinocyte cancers (KCs), made up of basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), which collectively outnumber all other human cancers combined. While it is clear that methylation modifiers are frequently dysregulated in KCs, the underlying molecular and mechanistic changes are only beginning to be understood. Intriguingly, it has recently emerged that there is extensive cross-talk amongst these distinct methylation processes. Here, we summarize and synthesize the latest findings in this space and highlight how these discoveries may uncover novel therapeutic approaches for these ubiquitous cancers.

The METTL3-m6A Epitranscriptome: Dynamic Regulator of Epithelial Development, Differentiation, and Cancer

Dynamic modifications on RNA, frequently termed both, “RNA epigenetics” and “epitranscriptomics”, offer one of the most exciting emerging areas of gene regulation and biomedicine. Similar to chromatin-based epigenetic mechanisms, writers, readers, and erasers regulate both the presence and interpretation of these modifications, thereby adding further nuance to the control of gene expression. In particular, the most abundant modification on mRNAs, N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), catalyzed by methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) has been shown to play a critical role in self-renewing somatic epithelia, fine-tuning the balance between development, differentiation, and cancer, particularly in the case of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs), which in aggregate, outnumber all other human cancers. Along with the development of targeted inhibitors of epitranscriptomic modulators (e.g., METTL3) now entering clinical trials, the field holds significant promise for treating these abundant cancers. Here, we present the most current summary of this work, while also highlighting the therapeutic potential of these discoveries.

Role of N6-methyl-adenosine modification in mammalian embryonic development

N6-methyl-adenosine (m6A) methylation is one of the most common and abundant modifications of RNA molecules in eukaryotes. Although various biological roles of m6A methylation have been elucidated, its role in embryonic development is still unclear. In this review, we focused on the function and expression patterns of m6A-related genes in mammalian embryonic development and the role of m6A modification in the embryonic epigenetic reprogramming process. The modification of m6A is regulated by the combined activities of methyltransferases, demethylases, and m6A-binding proteins. m6A-related genes act synergistically to form a dynamic, reversible m6A pattern, which exists in several physiological processes in various stages of embryonic development. The lack of one of these enzymes affects embryonic m6A levels, leading to abnormal embryonic development and even death. Moreover, m6A is a positive regulator of reprogramming to pluripotency and can affect embryo reprogramming by affecting activation of the maternal-to-zygotic transition. In conclusion, m6A is involved in the regulation of gene expression during embryonic development and the metabolic processes of RNA and plays an important role in the epigenetic modification of embryos.

The remodel of the "central dogma": a metabolomics interaction perspective

BACKGROUND

In 1957, Francis Crick drew a linear diagram on a blackboard. This diagram is often called the "central dogma." Subsequently, the relationships between different steps of the "central dogma" have been shown to be considerably complex, mostly because of the emerging world of small molecules. It is noteworthy that metabolites can be generated from the diet through gut microbiome metabolism, serve as substrates for epigenetic modifications, destabilize DNA quadruplexes, and follow Lamarckian inheritance. Small molecules were once considered the missing link in the "central dogma"; however, recently they have acquired a central role, and their general perception as downstream products has become reductionist. Metabolomics is a large-scale analysis of metabolites, and this emerging field has been shown to be the closest omics associated with the phenotype and concomitantly, the basis for all omics.

AIM OF REVIEW

Herein, we propose a broad updated perspective for the flux of information diagram centered in metabolomics, including the influence of other factors, such as epigenomics, diet, nutrition, and the gut- microbiome.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Metabolites are the beginning and the end of the flux of information.