Global landscape of phenazine biosynthesis and biodegradation reveals species-specific colonization patterns in agricultural soils and crop microbiomes

The Phosphorus-Iron Nexus: Decoding the Nutrients Interaction in Soil and Plant

Phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) are two essential mineral nutrients in plant growth. It is widely observed that interactions of P and Fe could influence their availability in soils and affect their homeostasis in plants, which has received significant attention in recent years. This review presents a summary of latest advances in the activation of insoluble Fe-P complexes by soil properties, microorganisms, and plants. Furthermore, we elucidate the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying how plants adapt to Fe-P interactions. This review also discusses the current limitations and presents potential avenues for promoting sustainable agriculture through the optimization of P and Fe utilization efficiency in crops.

Genetically dissecting the electron transport chain of a soil bacterium reveals a generalizable mechanism for biological phenazine-1-carboxylic acid oxidation

The capacity for bacterial extracellular electron transfer via secreted metabolites is widespread in natural, clinical, and industrial environments. Recently, we discovered the biological oxidation of phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), the first example of biological regeneration of a naturally produced extracellular electron shuttle. However, it remained unclear how PCA oxidation was catalyzed. Here, we report the mechanism, which we uncovered by genetically perturbing the branched electron transport chain (ETC) of the soil isolate Citrobacter portucalensis MBL. Biological PCA oxidation is coupled to anaerobic respiration with nitrate, fumarate, dimethyl sulfoxide, or trimethylamine-N-oxide as terminal electron acceptors. Genetically inactivating the catalytic subunits for all redundant complexes for a given terminal electron acceptor abolishes PCA oxidation. In the absence of quinones, PCA can still donate electrons to certain terminal reductases, albeit much less efficiently. In C. portucalensis MBL, PCA oxidation is largely driven by flux through the ETC, which suggests a generalizable mechanism that may be employed by any anaerobically respiring bacterium with an accessible cytoplasmic membrane. This model is supported by analogous genetic experiments during nitrate respiration by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Ecological relevance of flagellar motility in soil bacterial communities

Flagellar motility is a key bacterial trait as it allows bacteria to navigate their immediate surroundings. Not all bacteria are capable of flagellar motility, and the distribution of this trait, its ecological associations, and the life history strategies of flagellated taxa remain poorly characterized. We developed and validated a genome-based approach to infer the potential for flagellar motility across 12 bacterial phyla (26 192 unique genomes). The capacity for flagellar motility was associated with a higher prevalence of genes for carbohydrate metabolism and higher maximum potential growth rates, suggesting that flagellar motility is more prevalent in environments with higher carbon availability. To test this hypothesis, we applied a method to infer the prevalence of flagellar motility in whole bacterial communities from metagenomic data and quantified the prevalence of flagellar motility across four independent field studies that each captured putative gradients in soil carbon availability (148 metagenomes). We observed a positive relationship between the prevalence of bacterial flagellar motility and soil carbon availability in all datasets. Since soil carbon availability is often correlated with other factors that could influence the prevalence of flagellar motility, we validated these observations using metagenomic data from a soil incubation experiment where carbon availability was directly manipulated with glucose amendments. This confirmed that the prevalence of bacterial flagellar motility is consistently associated with soil carbon availability over other potential confounding factors. This work highlights the value of combining predictive genomic and metagenomic approaches to expand our understanding of microbial phenotypic traits and reveal their general environmental associations.

Microplastics in the insular marine environment of the Southwest Indian Ocean carry a microbiome including antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria: A case study from Reunion Island

The increasing threats to ecosystems and humans from marine plastic pollution require a comprehensive assessment. We present a plastisphere case study from Reunion Island, a remote oceanic island located in the Southwest Indian Ocean, polluted by plastics. We characterized the plastic pollution on the island's coastal waters, described the associated microbiome, explored viable bacterial flora and the presence of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria. Reunion Island faces plastic pollution with up to 10,000 items/km2 in coastal water. These plastics host microbiomes dominated by Proteobacteria (80 %), including dominant genera such as Psychrobacter, Photobacterium, Pseudoalteromonas and Vibrio. Culturable microbiomes reach 107 CFU/g of microplastics, with dominance of Exiguobacterium and Pseudomonas. Plastics also carry AMR bacteria including β-lactam resistance. Thus, Southwest Indian Ocean islands are facing serious plastic pollution. This pollution requires vigilant monitoring as it harbors a plastisphere including AMR, that threatens pristine ecosystems and potentially human health through the marine food chain.

From microbiome composition to functional engineering, one step at a time

SUMMARYCommunities of microorganisms (microbiota) are present in all habitats on Earth and are relevant for agriculture, health, and climate. Deciphering the mechanisms that determine microbiota dynamics and functioning within the context of their respective environments or hosts (the microbiomes) is crucially important. However, the sheer taxonomic, metabolic, functional, and spatial complexity of most microbiomes poses substantial challenges to advancing our knowledge of these mechanisms. While nucleic acid sequencing technologies can chart microbiota composition with high precision, we mostly lack information about the functional roles and interactions of each strain present in a given microbiome. This limits our ability to predict microbiome function in natural habitats and, in the case of dysfunction or dysbiosis, to redirect microbiomes onto stable paths. Here, we will discuss a systematic approach (dubbed the N+1/N-1 concept) to enable step-by-step dissection of microbiome assembly and functioning, as well as intervention procedures to introduce or eliminate one particular microbial strain at a time. The N+1/N-1 concept is informed by natural invasion events and selects culturable, genetically accessible microbes with well-annotated genomes to chart their proliferation or decline within defined synthetic and/or complex natural microbiota. This approach enables harnessing classical microbiological and diversity approaches, as well as omics tools and mathematical modeling to decipher the mechanisms underlying N+1/N-1 microbiota outcomes. Application of this concept further provides stepping stones and benchmarks for microbiome structure and function analyses and more complex microbiome intervention strategies.

Genetically dissecting the electron transport chain of a soil bacterium reveals a generalizable mechanism for biological phenazine-1-carboxylic acid oxidation

The capacity for bacterial extracellular electron transfer via secreted metabolites is widespread in natural, clinical, and industrial environments. Recently, we discovered biological oxidation of phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), the first example of biological regeneration of a naturally produced extracellular electron shuttle. However, it remained unclear how PCA oxidation was catalyzed. Here, we report the mechanism, which we uncovered by genetically perturbing the branched electron transport chain (ETC) of the soil isolate Citrobacter portucalensis MBL. Biological PCA oxidation is coupled to anaerobic respiration with nitrate, fumarate, dimethyl sulfoxide, or trimethylamine-N-oxide as terminal electron acceptors. Genetically inactivating the catalytic subunits for all redundant complexes for a given terminal electron acceptor abolishes PCA oxidation. In the absence of quinones, PCA can still donate electrons to certain terminal reductases, albeit much less efficiently. In C. portucalensis MBL, PCA oxidation is largely driven by flux through the ETC, which suggests a generalizable mechanism that may be employed by any anaerobically respiring bacterium with an accessible cytoplasmic membrane. This model is supported by analogous genetic experiments during nitrate respiration by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Phylogenetically related soil actinomycetes distinguish isolation sites by their metabolic activities

Soil environments are inhabited by microorganisms adapted to its diversified microhabitats. The metabolic activity of individual strains/populations reflects resources available at a particular spot, quality of which may not comply with broad soil characteristics. To explore the potential of individual strains to adapt to particular micro-niches of carbon sources, a set of 331 Actinomycetia strains were collected at ten sites differing in vegetation, soil pH, organic matter content and quality. The strains were isolated on the same complex medium with neutral pH and their metabolites analyzed by UHPLC and LC-MS/MS in spent cultivation medium (metabolic profiles). For all strains, their metabolic profiles correlated with soil pH and organic matter content of the original sites. In comparison, strains phylogeny based on either 16S rRNA or the beta-subunit of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (rpoB) genes was partially correlated with soil organic matter content but not soil pH at the sites. Antimicrobial activities of strains against Kocuria rhizophila, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were both site- and phylogeny-dependent. The precise adaptation of metabolic profiles to overall sites characteristics was further supported by the production of locally specific bioactive metabolites and suggested that carbon resources represent a significant selection pressure connected to specific antibiotic activities.

Deep discovery informs difficult deployment in plant microbiome science

Plant-associated microbiota can extend plant immune system function, improve nutrient acquisition and availability, and alleviate abiotic stresses. Thus, naturally beneficial microbial therapeutics are enticing tools to improve plant productivity. The basic definition of plant microbiota across species and ecosystems, combined with the development of reductionist experimental models and the manipulation of plant phenotypes with microbes, has fueled interest in its translation to agriculture. However, the great majority of microbes exhibiting plant-productivity traits in the lab and greenhouse fail in the field. Therapeutic microbes must reach détente, the establishment of uneasy homeostasis, with the plant immune system, invade heterogeneous pre-established plant-associated communities, and persist in a new and potentially remodeled community. Environmental conditions can alter community structure and thus impact the engraftment of therapeutic microbes. We survey recent breakthroughs, challenges, and opportunities in translating beneficial microbes from the lab to the field.

Fe-Based Nanomaterials and Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Synergistically Degrade Polychlorinated Biphenyls by Producing Extracellular Reactive Oxygen Species

Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) produce extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) to protect plants from external stresses. Fe-based nanomaterials can potentially interact with PGPR and synergistically degrade organic pollutants, yet they have received no study. Here, we studied how the interaction between a typical PGPR (Pseudomonas chlororaphis, JD37) and Fe-based nanomaterials facilitated the degradation of 2,4,4'-trichlorobiphenyl (PCB28), by comparing the zerovalent iron of 20 nm (nZVI20), 100 nm (nZVI100), and 5 μm; iron oxide nanomaterials (α-Fe2O3, γ-Fe2O3, and Fe3O4) of ca. 20 nm; and ferrous and ferric salts. Although all Fe materials (0.1 g L-1) alone could not degrade aqueous PCB28 (0.1 mg L-1) under dark or aerobic conditions, nZVI20, nZVI100, α-Fe2O3, and Fe2+ promoted PCB28 degradation by JD37, with the half-life of PCB28 shortened from 16.5 h by JD37 alone to 8.1 h with nZVI100 cotreatment. Mechanistically, the nanomaterials stimulated JD37 to secrete phenazine-1-carboxylic acid and accelerated the NADH/NAD+ conversion, promoting O2*- generation; JD37 increased Fe(II) dissolution from the nanomaterials, facilitating *OH generation; and the ROS gradually degraded PCB28 into benzoic acid through dihydroxy substitution, oxidation to quinone, and Michael addition. These findings provide a new strategy of nanoenabled biodegradation of organic pollutants by applying Fe-based nanomaterials and PGPR.

A phenazine-inspired framework for identifying biological functions of microbial redox-active metabolites

While the list of small molecules known to be secreted by environmental microbes continues to grow, our understanding of their in situ biological functions remains minimal. The time has come to develop a framework to parse the meaning of these "secondary metabolites," which are ecologically ubiquitous and have direct applications in medicine and biotechnology. Here, we focus on a particular subset of molecules, redox active metabolites (RAMs), and review the well-studied phenazines as archetypes of this class. We argue that efforts to characterize the chemical, physical and biological makeup of the microenvironments, wherein these molecules are produced, coupled with measurements of the molecules' basic chemical properties, will enable significant progress in understanding the precise roles of novel RAMs.

Genome sequence data of Burkholderia sp. IMCC1007 isolated from maize rhizosphere: A potential strain in fusaric acid mycotoxin biodegradation

Burkholderia sp. IMCC1007 is a gram-negative, aerobic bacterium affiliated with class Betaproteobacteria, which was successfully isolated from maize rhizospheric soil sample in UTM research plot, Pagoh, Malaysia by using enrichment method. Strain IMCC1007 utilized 50 mgL^-1 fusaric acid as its carbon source and degraded it completely within 14 h. Genome sequencing was performed using Illumina NovaSeq platform. The assembled genome was annotated using RAST (Rapid Annotation Subsystem Technology) server. The genome size was approximately 8,568,405 base pairs (bp) in 147 contigs with a G+C content of 66.04%. The genome includes 8,733 coding sequences and 68 RNAs. The genome sequence has been deposited at GenBank with the accession number of JAPVQY000000000. In the pairwise genome-to-genome comparisons, the strain IMCC1007 had an average nucleotide identity (ANI) of 91.9% and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) value of 55.2% with Burkholderia anthina DSM 16086^T respectively. Interestingly, fusaric acid resistance gene (fusC) and nicABCDFXT gene clusters (hydroxylation of pyridine compound) were found in the genome. Additionally, preliminary genome annotation analysis of strain IMCC1007 identified tryptophan halogenase (prnA) gene responsible for antifungal pyrrolnitrin biosynthesis. This dataset herein provides further insights into the fusaric acid degradation mechanism of the genus Burkholderia.

Genome mining of Pseudomonas spp. hints towards the production of under-pitched secondary metabolites

The recent advances in omics and computational analysis have enabled the capacity to identify the exclusive strain-specific metabolites and novel biosynthetic gene clusters. This study analyzed eight strains of P. aurantiaca including GS1, GS3, GS4, GS6, GS7, FS2, ARS38, PBSt2, one strain of P. chlororaphis RP4, one strain of P. aeruginosa (At1RP4), and one strain of P. fluorescens (RS1) for the production of rhamnolipids, quorum-sensing signals, and osmolytes. Seven rhamnolipid derivatives were variably detected in fluorescent pseudomonads. These rhamnolipids included Rha-C10-C8, Rha-Rha-C10-C10, Rha-C10-C12db, Rha-C10-C10, Rha-Rha-C10-C12, Rha-C10-C12, and Rha-Rha-C10-C12db. Pseudomonas spp. also showed the variable production of osmoprotectants including N-acetyl glutaminyl glutamine amide (NAGGN), betaine, ectoine, and trehalose. Betaine and ectoine were produced by all pseudomonads, however, NAGGN and trehalose were observed by five and three strains, respectively. Four strains including P. chlororaphis (RP4), P. aeruginosa (At1RP4), P. fluorescens (RS1), and P. aurantiaca (PBSt2) were exposed to 1- 4% NaCl concentrations and evaluated for the changes in phenazine production profile which were negligible. AntiSMASH 5.0 platform showed 50 biosynthetic gene clusters in PB-St2, of which 23 (45%) were classified as putative gene clusters with ClusterFinder algorithm, five (10%) were classified as non-ribosomal peptides synthetases (NRPS), five (10%) as saccharides, and four (8%) were classified as putative fatty acids. The genomic attributes and comprehensive insights into the metabolomic profile of these Pseudomonas spp. strains showcase their phytostimulatory, phyto-protective, and osmoprotective effects of diverse crops grown in normal and saline soils.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03607-x.

Metabolic Degradation and Bioactive Derivative Synthesis of Phenazine-1-Carboxylic Acid by Genetically Engineered Pseudomonas chlororaphis HT66

Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) secreted by Pseudomonas chlororaphis has been commercialized and widely employed as an antifungal pesticide. However, it displays potential hazards to nontarget microorganisms and the environment. Although the PCA degradation characteristics have received extensive attention, the biodegradation efficiency is still insufficient to address the environmental risks. In this study, an engineered Pseudomonas capable of degrading PCA was constructed by introducing heterologous PCA 1,2-dioxygenase (PcaA1A2A3A4). By integrating the PCA degradation module in the chemical mutagenesis mutant P3, 7.94 g/L PCA can be degraded in 60 h, which exhibited the highest PCA degradation efficiency to date and was 35.4-fold higher than that of the PCA natural degraders. Additionally, PCA was converted to 1-methoxyphenazine through structure modification by introducing the functional enzymes PhzS_Pa and PhzM_La, which has good antifungal activity and environmental compatibility. This work demonstrates new possibilities for developing PCA-derived biopesticides and enables targeted control of the impact of PCA in diverse environments.

Two novel species isolated from wheat rhizospheres in Serbia: Pseudomonas serbica sp. nov. and Pseudomonas serboccidentalis sp. nov

Pseudomonas strains IT-194P, IT-215P, IT-P366^T and IT-P374^T were isolated from the rhizospheres of wheat grown in soils sampled from different fields (some of them known to be disease-suppressive) located near Mionica, Serbia. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA genes and of whole genome sequences showed that these strains belong to two potentially new species, one containing strains IT-P366^T and IT-194P and clustering (whole genome analysis) next to P. umsongensis DSM16611^T, and another species containing strains IT-P374^T and IT-215P and clustering next to P. koreensis LMG21318^T. Genome analysis confirmed the proposition of novel species, as ANI was below the threshold of 95% and dDDH below 70% for strains IT-P366^T (compared with P. umsongensis DSM16611^T) and IT-P374^T (compared with P. koreensis LMG21318^T). Unlike P. umsongensis DSM16611^T, strains of P. serbica can grow on D-mannitol, but not on pectin, D-galacturonic acid, L-galactonic acid lactone and α-hydroxybutyric acid. In contrary to P. koreensis LMG21318^T, strains of P. serboccidentalis can use sucrose, inosine and α-ketoglutaric acid (but not L-histidine) as carbon sources. Altogether, these results indicate the existence of two novel species for which we propose the names Pseudomonas serbica sp. nov., with the type strain IT-P366^T (=CFBP 9060 ^T = LMG 32732 ^T = EML 1791 ^T) and Pseudomonas serboccidentalis sp. nov., with the type strain IT-P374^T (=CFBP 9061 ^T = LMG 32734 ^T = EML 1792 ^T). Strains from this study presented a set of phytobeneficial functions modulating plant hormonal balance, plant nutrition and plant protection, suggesting a potential as Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR).

Insights into the Electron Transfer Behaviors of a Biocathode Regulated by Cathode Potentials in Microbial Electrosynthesis Cells for Biogas Upgrading

Bioelectrochemical-based biogas upgrading is a promising technology for the storage of renewable energy and reduction of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Understanding the electron transfer behavior between the electrodes and biofilm is crucial for the development of this technology. Herein, the electron transfer pathway of the biofilm and its catalytic capability that responded to the cathode potential during the electromethanogenesis process were investigated. The result suggested that the dominant electron transfer pathway shifted from a direct (DET) to indirect (IDET) way when decreasing the cathode potential from -0.8 V (Bio-0.8 V) to -1.0 V (Bio-1.0 V) referred to Ag/AgCl. More IDET-related redox substances and high content of hydrogenotrophic methanogens (91.9%) were observed at Bio-1.0 V, while more DET-related redox substances and methanogens (82.3%) were detected at Bio-0.8 V. H₂, as an important electron mediator, contributed to the electromethanogenesis up to 72.9% of total CH₄ yield at Bio-1.0 V but only ∼17.3% at Bio-0.8 V. Much higher biogas upgrading performance in terms of CH₄ production rate, final CH₄ content, and carbon conversion rate was obtained with Bio-1.0 V. This study provides insight into the electron transfer pathway in the mixed culture constructed biofilm for biogas upgrading.

Non-canonical pattern recognition of a pathogen-derived metabolite by a nuclear hormone receptor identifies virulent bacteria in C. elegans

Distinguishing infectious pathogens from harmless microorganisms is essential for animal health. The mechanisms used to identify infectious microbes are not fully understood, particularly in metazoan hosts that eat bacteria as their food source. Here, we characterized a non-canonical pattern-recognition system in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) that assesses the relative threat of virulent Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) to activate innate immunity. We discovered that the innate immune response in C. elegans was triggered by phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN), a toxic metabolite produced by pathogenic strains of P. aeruginosa. We identified the nuclear hormone receptor NHR-86/HNF4 as the PCN sensor in C. elegans and validated that PCN bound to the ligand-binding domain of NHR-86/HNF4. Activation of NHR-86/HNF4 by PCN directly engaged a transcriptional program in intestinal epithelial cells that protected against P. aeruginosa. Thus, a bacterial metabolite is a pattern of pathogenesis surveilled by nematodes to identify a pathogen in its bacterial diet.

The chemical ecology of coumarins and phenazines affects iron acquisition by pseudomonads

Secondary metabolites are important facilitators of plant-microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, contributing to communication, competition, and nutrient acquisition. However, at first glance, the rhizosphere seems full of metabolites with overlapping functions, and we have a limited understanding of basic principles governing metabolite use. Increasing access to the essential nutrient iron is one important, but seemingly redundant role performed by both plant and microbial Redox-Active Metabolites (RAMs). We used coumarins, RAMs made by the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and phenazines, RAMs made by soil-dwelling pseudomonads, to ask whether plant and microbial RAMs might each have distinct functions under different environmental conditions. We show that variations in oxygen and pH lead to predictable differences in the capacity of coumarins vs phenazines to increase the growth of iron-limited pseudomonads and that these effects depend on whether pseudomonads are grown on glucose, succinate, or pyruvate: carbon sources commonly found in root exudates. Our results are explained by the chemical reactivities of these metabolites and the redox state of phenazines as altered by microbial metabolism. This work shows that variations in the chemical microenvironment can profoundly affect secondary metabolite function and suggests plants may tune the utility of microbial secondary metabolites by altering the carbon released in root exudates. Together, these findings suggest that RAM diversity may be less overwhelming when viewed through a chemical ecological lens: Distinct molecules can be expected to be more or less important to certain ecosystem functions, such as iron acquisition, depending on the local chemical microenvironments in which they reside.

Screening of natural phenazine producers for electroactivity in bioelectrochemical systems

Mediated extracellular electron transfer (EET) might be a great vehicle to connect microbial bioprocesses with electrochemical control in stirred-tank bioreactors. However, mediated electron transfer to date is not only much less efficient but also much less studied than microbial direct electron transfer to an anode. For example, despite the widespread capacity of pseudomonads to produce phenazine natural products, only Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been studied for its use of phenazines in bioelectrochemical applications. To provide a deeper understanding of the ecological potential for the bioelectrochemical exploitation of phenazines, we here investigated the potential electroactivity of over 100 putative diverse native phenazine producers and the performance within bioelectrochemical systems. Five species from the genera Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Nocardiopsis, Brevibacterium and Burkholderia were identified as new electroactive bacteria. Electron discharge to the anode and electric current production correlated with the phenazine synthesis of Pseudomonas chlororaphis subsp. aurantiaca. Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid was the dominant molecule with a concentration of 86.1 μg/ml mediating an anodic current of 15.1 μA/cm² . On the other hand, Nocardiopsis chromatogenes used a wider range of phenazines at low concentrations and likely yet-unknown redox compounds to mediate EET, achieving an anodic current of 9.5 μA/cm² . Elucidating the energetic and metabolic usage of phenazines in these and other species might contribute to improving electron discharge and respiration. In the long run, this may enhance oxygen-limited bioproduction of value-added compounds based on mediated EET mechanisms.

Association of Midgut Bacteria and Their Metabolic Pathways with Zika Infection and Insecticide Resistance in Colombian Aedes aegypti Populations

INTRODUCTION

Aedes aegypti is the vector of several arboviruses such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya. In 2015-16, Zika virus (ZIKV) had an outbreak in South America associated with prenatal microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. This mosquito's viral transmission is influenced by microbiota abundance and diversity and its interactions with the vector. The conditions of cocirculation of these three arboviruses, failure in vector control due to insecticide resistance, limitations in dengue management during the COVID-19 pandemic, and lack of effective treatment or vaccines make it necessary to identify changes in mosquito midgut bacterial composition and predict its functions through the infection. Its study is fundamental because it generates knowledge for surveillance of transmission and the risk of outbreaks of these diseases at the local level.

METHODS

Midgut bacterial compositions of females of Colombian Ae. aegypti populations were analyzed using DADA2 Pipeline, and their functions were predicted with PICRUSt2 analysis. These analyses were done under the condition of natural ZIKV infection and resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin, alone and in combination. One-step RT-PCR determined the percentage of ZIKV-infected females. We also measured the susceptibility to the pyrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin and evaluated the presence of the V1016I mutation in the sodium channel gene.

RESULTS

We found high ZIKV infection rates in Ae. aegypti females from Colombian rural municipalities with deficient water supply, such as Honda with 63.6%. In the face of natural infection with an arbovirus such as Zika, the diversity between an infective and non-infective form was significantly different. Bacteria associated with a state of infection with ZIKV and lambda-cyhalothrin resistance were detected, such as the genus Bacteroides, which was related to functions of pathogenicity, antimicrobial resistance, and bioremediation of insecticides. We hypothesize that it is a vehicle for virus entry, as it is in human intestinal infections. On the other hand, Bello, the only mosquito population classified as susceptible to lambda-cyhalothrin, was associated with bacteria related to mucin degradation functions in the intestine, belonging to the Lachnospiraceae family, with the genus Dorea being increased in ZIKV-infected females. The Serratia genus presented significantly decreased functions related to phenazine production, potentially associated with infection control, and control mechanism functions for host defense and quorum sensing. Additionally, Pseudomonas was the genus principally associated with functions of the degradation of insecticides related to tryptophan metabolism, ABC transporters with a two-component system, efflux pumps, and alginate synthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Microbiota composition may be modulated by ZIKV infection and insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti Colombian populations. The condition of resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin could be inducing a phenome of dysbiosis in field Ae. aegypti affecting the transmission of arboviruses.

Investigating the interaction between Shewanella oneidensis and phenazine 1-carboxylic acid in the microbial electrochemical processes

Many exoelectrogens utilize small redox mediators for extracellular electron transfer (EET). Notable examples include Shewanella species, which synthesize flavins, and Pseudomonas species, which produce phenazines. In natural and engineered environments, redox-active metabolites from different organisms coexist. The interaction between Shewanella oneidensis and phenazine 1-carboxylic acid (PCA, a representative phenazine compound) was investigated to demonstrate exoelectrogens utilizing metabolites secreted by other organisms as redox mediators. After 24 h in a reactor with and without added PCA (1 μM), the anodic current generated by Shewanella was 235 ± 11 and 51.7 ± 2.8 μA, respectively. Shewanella produced oxidative current approximately three times as high with medium containing PCA as with medium containing the same concentration of riboflavin. PCA also stimulated inward EET in Shewanella. The strong effect of PCA on EET was attributed to its enrichment at the biofilm/electrode interface. The PCA voltammetric peak heights with a Shewanella bioanode were 25-30 times higher than under abiotic conditions. The electrochemical properties of PCA were also altered by the transition from two-electron to single-electron electrochemistry, which suggests PCA was bound between the electrode and cell surface redox proteins. This behavior would benefit electroactive bacteria, which usually dwell in open systems where mediators are present in low concentrations. Like flavins, PCA can be immobilized under both bioanode and biocathode conditions but not under metabolically inactive conditions. Shewanella rapidly transfers electrons to PCA via its Mtr pathway. Compared with wild-type Shewanella, the PCA reduction ability was decreased in gene knockout mutants lacking Mtr pathway cytochromes, especially in the mutants with severely undermined electrode-reduction capacities. These strains also lost the ability to immobilize PCA, even under current-generating conditions.

Assessing the genomic composition, putative ecological relevance and biotechnological potential of plasmids from sponge bacterial symbionts

Plasmid-mediated transfer of genes can have direct consequences in several biological processes within sponge microbial communities. However, very few studies have attempted genomic and functional characterization of plasmids from marine host-associated microbial communities in general and those of sponges in particular. In the present study, we used an endogenous plasmid isolation method to obtain plasmids from bacterial symbionts of the marine sponges Stylissa carteri and Paratetilla sp. and investigated the genomic composition, putative ecological relevance and biotechnological potential of these plasmids. In total, we isolated and characterized three complete plasmids, three plasmid prophages and one incomplete plasmid. Our results highlight the importance of plasmids to transfer relevant genetic traits putatively involved in microbial symbiont adaptation and host-microbe and microbe-microbe interactions. For example, putative genes involved in bacterial response to chemical stress, competition, metabolic versatility and mediation of bacterial colonization and pathogenicity were detected. Genes coding for enzymes and toxins of biotechnological potential were also detected. Most plasmid prophage coding sequences were, however, hypothetical proteins with unknown functions. Overall, this study highlights the ecological relevance of plasmids in the marine sponge microbiome and provides evidence that plasmids of sponge bacterial symbionts may represent an untapped resource of genes of biotechnological interest.

Network-Based Redox Communication Between Abiotic Interactive Materials

Recent observations that abiotic materials can engage in redox-based interactive communication motivates the search for new redox-active materials. Here we fabricated a hydrogel from a four-armed thiolated polyethylene glycol (PEG-SH) and the bacterial metabolite, pyocyanin (PYO). We show that: (i) the PYO-PEG hydrogel is reversibly redox-active; (ii) the molecular-switching and directed electron flow within this PYO-PEG hydrogel requires both a thermodynamic driving force (i.e., potential difference) and diffusible electron carriers that serve as nodes in a redox network; (iii) this redox-switching and electron flow is controlled by the redox network’s topology; and (iv) the ability of the PYO-PEG hydrogel to “transmit” electrons to a second insoluble redox-active material (i.e., a catechol-PEG hydrogel) is context-dependent (i.e., dependent on thermodynamic driving forces and appropriate redox shuttles). These studies provide an experimental demonstration of important features of redox-communication and also suggest technological opportunities for the fabrication of interactive materials.

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Thiol-pyocyanin reaction was used to create a redox-active and interactive hydrogel

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The electron flow and molecular switching requires diffusible mediators

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These mediators and pyocyanin hydrogel serve as “nodes” in a redox reaction network

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The networked flow of electrons between two separated hydrogels is reported

Isolation and Biosynthesis of Phenazine-Polyketide Hybrids from Streptomyces sp. KIB-H483

A phenazine-polyketide hybrid compound, nexphenazine A (1), was isolated from Streptomyces sp. KIB-H483. The bioinformatic analysis of the draft genome of the producing strain and gene inactivation experiments revealed that the biosynthesis of 1 involves a phenazine-polyketide hybrid gene cluster. The abolished production of 1 as well as the accumulation of shunt metabolites 4-7 in mutant strain ΔnpzI revealed the key role of the npzI gene, which encodes an NAD(P)H-dependent ketoreductase, in nexphenazine biosynthesis. The structures and absolute configurations of the isolated intermediates were established on the basis of spectroscopic data analysis, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, chiral chromatography, and chemical conversion experiments. NpzI exhibited stereochemical selectivity in reducing the carbonyl group of 4. Nexphenazine biosynthesis is proposed to involve a condensation of the carboxyl group of phenazine with one molecule of methylmalonyl-CoA by a type I PKS, followed by a ketone reduction by NpzI and an unknown methylation reaction.

Prevalence and correlates of phenazine resistance in culturable bacteria from a dryland wheat field

Phenazines are a class of bacterially-produced redox-active natural antibiotics that have demonstrated potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional pesticides for the biocontrol of fungal crop diseases. However, the prevalence of bacterial resistance to agriculturally-relevant phenazines is poorly understood, limiting both the understanding of how these molecules might shape rhizosphere bacterial communities and the ability to perform risk assessment for off-target effects. Here, we describe profiles of susceptibility to the antifungal agent phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) across more than 100 bacterial strains isolated from a wheat field where PCA producers are indigenous and abundant. We find that Gram-positive bacteria are typically more sensitive to PCA than Gram-negative bacteria, but that there is also significant variability in susceptibility both within and across phyla. Phenazine-resistant strains are more likely to be isolated from the wheat rhizosphere, where PCA producers are also more abundant, compared to bulk soil. Furthermore, PCA toxicity is pH-dependent for most susceptible strains and broadly correlates with PCA reduction rates, suggesting that uptake and redox-cycling are important determinants of phenazine toxicity. Our results shed light on which classes of bacteria are most likely to be susceptible to phenazine toxicity in acidic or neutral soils. In addition, the taxonomic and phenotypic diversity of our strain collection represents a valuable resource for future studies on the role of natural antibiotics in shaping wheat rhizosphere communities. Importance Microbial communities contribute to crop health in important ways. For example, phenazine metabolites are a class of redox-active molecules made by diverse soil bacteria that underpin the biocontrol of wheat and other crops. Their physiological functions are nuanced: in some contexts they are toxic, in others, beneficial. While much is known about phenazine production and the effect of phenazines on producing strains, our ability to predict how phenazines might shape the composition of environmental microbial communities is poorly constrained; that phenazine prevalence in the rhizosphere is predicted to increase in arid soils as the climate changes provides an impetus for further study. As a step towards gaining a predictive understanding of phenazine-linked microbial ecology, we document the effects of phenazines on diverse bacteria that were co-isolated from a wheat rhizosphere and identify conditions and phenotypes that correlate with how a strain will respond to phenazines.

Soil bacteria protect fungi from phenazines by acting as toxin sponges

Many environmentally and clinically important fungi are sensitive to toxic, bacterially produced, redox-active molecules called phenazines. Despite being vulnerable to phenazine assault, fungi inhabit microbial communities that contain phenazine producers. Because many fungi cannot withstand phenazine challenge but some bacterial species can, we hypothesized that bacterial partners may protect fungi in phenazine-replete environments. From a single soil sample, we were able to co-isolate several such physically associated pairings. We discovered the novel species Paraburkholderia edwinii and demonstrated it can protect a co-isolated Aspergillus species from phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) by sequestering it, acting as a toxin sponge; in turn, it also gains protection. When challenged with PCA, P. edwinii changes its morphology, forming aggregates within the growing fungal colony. Further, the fungal partner triggers P. edwinii to sequester PCA and maintains conditions that limit PCA toxicity by promoting an anoxic and highly reducing environment. A mutagenic screen of P. edwinii revealed this protective program depends on the stress-inducible transcriptional repressor HrcA. We show that one relevant stressor in response to PCA challenge is fungal acidification and that acid stress causes P. edwinii to behave as though the fungus were present. Finally, we reveal this phenomenon as widespread among Paraburkholderia with moderate specificity among bacterial and fungal partners, including plant and human pathogens. Our discovery suggests a common mechanism by which fungi can gain access to phenazine-replete environments and provides a tractable model system for its study. These results have implications for how microbial communities in the rhizosphere as well as in plant and human infection sites negotiate community membership via a chemical dialectic.

Needles in haystacks: reevaluating old paradigms for the discovery of bacterial secondary metabolites

Covering: up to 2021Natural products research is in the midst of a renaissance ushered in by a modern understanding of microbiology and the technological explosions of genomics and metabolomics. As the exploration of uncharted chemical space expands into high-throughput discovery campaigns, it has become increasingly clear how design elements influence success: (bio)geography, habitat, community dynamics, culturing/induction methods, screening methods, dereplication, and more. We explore critical considerations and assumptions in natural products discovery. We revisit previous estimates of chemical rediscovery and discuss their relatedness to study design and producer taxonomy. Through frequency analyses of biosynthetic gene clusters in publicly available genomic data, we highlight phylogenetic biases that influence rediscovery rates. Through selected examples of how study design at each level determines discovery outcomes, we discuss the challenges and opportunities for the future of high-throughput natural product discovery.

Monooxygenase LaPhzX is Involved in Self-Resistance Mechanisms during the Biosynthesis of N-Oxide Phenazine Myxin

Self-resistance genes are deployed by many microbial producers of bioactive natural products to avoid self-toxicity. Myxin, a di-N-oxide phenazine produced by Lysobacter antibioticus OH13, is toxic to many microorganisms and tumor cells. Here, we uncovered a self-defense strategy featuring the antibiotic biosynthesis monooxygenase (ABM) family protein LaPhzX for myxin degradation. The gene LaPhzX is located in the myxin biosynthetic gene cluster (LaPhz), and its deletion resulted in bacterial mutants that are more sensitive to myxin. In addition, the LaPhzX mutants showed increased myxin accumulation and reduction of its derivative, compound 4, compared to the wild-type strain. Meanwhile, in vitro biochemical assays demonstrated that LaPhzX significantly degraded myxin in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), flavin mononucleotide (FMN), and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). In addition, heterologous expression of LaPhzX in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and Escherichia coli increased their resistance to myxin. Overall, our work illustrates a monooxygenase-mediated self-resistance mechanism for phenazine antibiotic biosynthesis.

Nitrate Reduction Stimulates and Is Stimulated by Phenazine-1-Carboxylic Acid Oxidation by Citrobacter portucalensis MBL

Phenazines are secreted metabolites that microbes use in diverse ways, from quorum sensing to antimicrobial warfare to energy conservation. Phenazines are able to contribute to these activities due to their redox activity. The physiological consequences of cellular phenazine reduction have been extensively studied, but the counterpart phenazine oxidation has been largely overlooked. Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) is common in the environment and readily reduced by its producers. Here, we describe its anaerobic oxidation by Citrobacter portucalensis strain MBL, which was isolated from topsoil in Falmouth, MA, and which does not produce phenazines itself. This activity depends on the availability of a suitable terminal electron acceptor, specifically nitrate. When C. portucalensis MBL is provided reduced PCA and nitrate, it oxidizes the PCA at a rate that is environmentally relevant. We compared this terminal electron acceptor-dependent PCA-oxidizing activity of C. portucalensis MBL to that of several other gammaproteobacteria with various capacities to respire nitrate. We found that PCA oxidation by these strains in a nitrate-dependent manner is decoupled from growth and strain dependent. We infer that bacterial PCA oxidation is widespread and genetically determined. Notably, oxidizing PCA enhances the rate of nitrate reduction to nitrite by C. portucalensis MBL beyond the stoichiometric exchange of electrons from PCA to nitrate, which we attribute to C. portucalensis MBL’s ability to also reduce oxidized PCA, thereby catalyzing a complete PCA redox cycle. This bidirectionality highlights the versatility of PCA as a biological redox agent.

Functional Analysis of Phenazine Biosynthesis Genes in Burkholderia spp

Burkholderia encompasses a group of ubiquitous Gram-negative bacteria that includes numerous saprophytes as well as species that cause infections in animals, immunocompromised patients, and plants. Some species of Burkholderia produce colored, redox-active secondary metabolites called phenazines. Phenazines contribute to competitiveness, biofilm formation, and virulence in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, but knowledge of their diversity, biosynthesis, and biological functions in Burkholderia is lacking. In this study, we screened publicly accessible genome sequence databases and identified phenazine biosynthesis genes in multiple strains of the Burkholderia cepacia complex, some isolates of the B. pseudomallei clade, and the plant pathogen B. glumae We then focused on B. lata ATCC 17760 to reveal the organization and function of genes involved in the production of dimethyl 4,9-dihydroxy-1,6-phenazinedicarboxylate. Using a combination of isogenic mutants and plasmids carrying different segments of the phz locus, we characterized three novel genes involved in the modification of the phenazine tricycle. Our functional studies revealed a connection between the presence and amount of phenazines and the dynamics of biofilm growth in flow cell and static experimental systems but at the same time failed to link the production of phenazines with the capacity of Burkholderia to kill fruit flies and rot onions.IMPORTANCE Although the production of phenazines in Burkholderia was first reported almost 70 years ago, the role these metabolites play in the biology of these economically important microorganisms remains poorly understood. Our results revealed that the phenazine biosynthetic pathway in Burkholderia has a complex evolutionary history, which likely involved horizontal gene transfers among several distantly related groups of organisms. The contribution of phenazines to the formation of biofilms suggests that Burkholderia, like fluorescent pseudomonads, may benefit from the unique redox-cycling properties of these versatile secondary metabolites.

Rhizosphere plant-microbe interactions under water stress

Climate change, with its extreme temperature, weather and precipitation patterns, is a major global concern of dryland farmers, who currently meet the challenges of climate change agronomically and with growth of drought-tolerant crops. Plants themselves compensate for water stress by modifying aerial surfaces to control transpiration and altering root hydraulic conductance to increase water uptake. These responses are complemented by metabolic changes involving phytohormone network-mediated activation of stress response pathways, resulting in decreased photosynthetic activity and the accumulation of metabolites to maintain osmotic and redox homeostasis. Phylogenetically diverse microbial communities sustained by plants contribute to host drought tolerance by modulating phytohormone levels in the rhizosphere and producing water-sequestering biofilms. Drylands of the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA, illustrate the interdependence of dryland crops and their associated microbiota. Indigenous Pseudomonas spp. selected there by long-term wheat monoculture suppress root diseases via the production of antibiotics, with soil moisture a critical determinant of the bacterial distribution, dynamics and activity. Those pseudomonads producing phenazine antibiotics on wheat had more abundant rhizosphere biofilms and provided improved tolerance to drought, suggesting a role of the antibiotic in alleviation of drought stress. The transcriptome and metabolome studies suggest the importance of wheat root exudate-derived osmoprotectants for the adaptation of these pseudomonads to the rhizosphere lifestyle and support the idea that the exchange of metabolites between plant roots and microorganisms profoundly affects and shapes the belowground plant microbiome under water stress.

Redox-active antibiotics enhance phosphorus bioavailability

Microbial production of antibiotics is common, but our understanding of their roles in the environment is limited. In this study, we explore long-standing observations that microbes increase the production of redox-active antibiotics under phosphorus limitation. The availability of phosphorus, a nutrient required by all life on Earth and essential for agriculture, can be controlled by adsorption to and release from iron minerals by means of redox cycling. Using phenazine antibiotic production by pseudomonads as a case study, we show that phenazines are regulated by phosphorus, solubilize phosphorus through reductive dissolution of iron oxides in the lab and field, and increase phosphorus-limited microbial growth. Phenazines are just one of many examples of phosphorus-regulated antibiotics. Our work suggests a widespread but previously unappreciated role for redox-active antibiotics in phosphorus acquisition and cycling.

Finding phenazine

Analysis of genetic information from soil samples provides insights into bacteria that help to protect crops from fungal diseases by producing chemicals called phenazines.