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Zhao WY, Liu ZC, Shi S, Li JL, Xu KW, Huang KY, Chen ZH, Wang YR, Huang CY, Wang Y, Chen JR, Sun XL, Liang WX, Guo W, Wang LY, Meng KK, Li XJ, Yin QY, Zhou RC, Wang ZD, Wu H, Cui DF, Su ZY, Xin GR, Liu WQ, Shu WS, Jin JH, Boufford DE, Fan Q, Wang L, Chen SF, Liao WB. Landform and lithospheric development contribute to the assembly of mountain floras in China. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5139. [PMID: 38886388 PMCID: PMC11183111 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49522-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Although it is well documented that mountains tend to exhibit high biodiversity, how geological processes affect the assemblage of montane floras is a matter of ongoing research. Here, we explore landform-specific differences among montane floras based on a dataset comprising 17,576 angiosperm species representing 140 Chinese mountain floras, which we define as the collection of all angiosperm species growing on a specific mountain. Our results show that igneous bedrock (granitic and karst-granitic landforms) is correlated with higher species richness and phylogenetic overdispersion, while the opposite is true for sedimentary bedrock (karst, Danxia, and desert landforms), which is correlated with phylogenetic clustering. Furthermore, we show that landform type was the primary determinant of the assembly of evolutionarily older species within floras, while climate was a greater determinant for younger species. Our study indicates that landform type not only affects montane species richness, but also contributes to the composition of montane floras. To explain the assembly and differentiation of mountain floras, we propose the 'floristic geo-lithology hypothesis', which highlights the role of bedrock and landform processes in montane floristic assembly and provides insights for future research on speciation, migration, and biodiversity in montane regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Yi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhong-Cheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- College of Resource Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shi Shi
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie-Lan Li
- Shenzhen Dapeng Peninsula National Geopark, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ke-Wang Xu
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Kang-You Huang
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Zhi-Hui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ya-Rong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cui-Ying Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Wang
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jing-Rui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xian-Ling Sun
- Shenzhen Dapeng Peninsula National Geopark, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wen-Xing Liang
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wei Guo
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, China
| | - Long-Yuan Wang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kai-Kai Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xu-Jie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qian-Yi Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ren-Chao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhao-Dong Wang
- Shenzhen Dapeng Peninsula National Geopark, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Shenzhen Dapeng Peninsula National Geopark, Shenzhen, China
| | - Da-Fang Cui
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Yao Su
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guo-Rong Xin
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wei-Qiu Liu
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wen-Sheng Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jian-Hua Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | | | - Qiang Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Lei Wang
- College of Resource Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
| | - Su-Fang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Wen-Bo Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China.
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China.
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2
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Tribble CM, Alzate-Guarín F, Gándara E, Vartoumian A, Burleigh JG, Zenil-Ferguson R, Specht CD, Rothfels CJ. The rapid radiation of Bomarea (Alstroemeriaceae: Liliales), driven by the rise of the Andes. Evolution 2024; 78:221-236. [PMID: 37831628 DOI: 10.1093/evolut/qpad184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Geological events such as mountain uplift affect how, when, and where species diversify, but measuring those effects is a longstanding challenge. Andean orogeny impacted the evolution of regional biota by creating barriers to gene flow, opening new habitats, and changing local climate. Bomarea (Alstroemeriaceae) are tropical plants with (often) small, isolated ranges; in total, Bomarea species occur from central Mexico to central Chile. This genus appears to have evolved rapidly and quite recently, and rapid radiations are often challenging to resolve with traditional phylogenetic inference. In this study, we apply phylogenomics-with hundreds of loci, gene-tree-based data curation, and a multispecies-coalescent approach-to infer the phylogeny of Bomarea. We use this phylogeny to untangle the potential drivers of diversification and biogeographic history. In particular, we test if Andean orogeny contributed to the diversification of Bomarea. We find that Bomarea originated in the central Andes during the mid-Miocene, then spread north, following the trajectory of mountain uplift. Furthermore, Andean lineages diversified faster than non-Andean relatives. Bomarea thus demonstrates that-at least in some cases-geological change rather than environmental stability has driven high species diversity in a tropical biodiversity hotspot. These results also demonstrate the utility (and danger) of genome-scale data for making macroevolutionary inferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie M Tribble
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Department of Integrative Biology and University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Fernando Alzate-Guarín
- Grupo de Estudios Botánicos (GEOBOTA) and Herbario Universidad de Antioquia (HUA), Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Etelvina Gándara
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Araz Vartoumian
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
- Department of Oral Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | | | | | - Chelsea D Specht
- Section of Plant Biology and the L.H. Bailey Hortorium, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Carl J Rothfels
- Department of Integrative Biology and University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Intermountain Herbarium, Department of Biology, and Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
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3
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Villalobos-Barrantes HM, Meriño BM, Walter HE, Guerrero PC. Independent Evolutionary Lineages in a Globular Cactus Species Complex Reveals Hidden Diversity in a Central Chile Biodiversity Hotspot. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13020240. [PMID: 35205285 PMCID: PMC8872226 DOI: 10.3390/genes13020240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Unraveling the processes involved in the origin of a substantial fraction of biodiversity can be a particularly difficult task in groups of similar, and often convergent, morphologies. The genus Eriosyce (Cactaceae) might present a greater specific diversity since much of its species richness might be hidden in morphological species complexes. The aim of this study was to investigate species delimitation using the molecular data of the globose cacti “E. curvispina”, which harbor several populations of unclear evolutionary relationships. We ran phylogenetic inferences on 87 taxa of Eriosyce, including nine E. curvispina populations, and by analyzing three plastid noncoding introns, one plastid and one nuclear gene. Additionally, we developed 12 new pairs of nuclear microsatellites to evaluate the population-level genetic structure. We identified four groups that originated in independent cladogenetic events occurring at different temporal depths; these groups presented high genetic diversity, and their populations were genetically structured. These results suggest a complex evolutionary history in the origin of globular cacti, with independent speciation events occurring at different time spans. This cryptic richness is underestimated in the Mediterranean flora of central Chile, and thus unique evolutionary diversity could be overlooked in conservation and management actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidy M. Villalobos-Barrantes
- Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile; (H.M.V.-B.); (B.M.M.)
- Escuela de Química, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica
- Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica
| | - Beatriz M. Meriño
- Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile; (H.M.V.-B.); (B.M.M.)
- Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Concepción 4030000, Chile
| | - Helmut E. Walter
- The EXSIS Project: Cactaceae Ex-Situ & In-Situ Conservation, 31860 Emmerthal, Germany;
| | - Pablo C. Guerrero
- Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile; (H.M.V.-B.); (B.M.M.)
- Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Concepción 4030000, Chile
- Millennium Institute Biodiversity of Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic Ecosystems (BASE), Santiago 7800003, Chile
- Correspondence:
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4
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Heads M, Grehan JR. The Galápagos Islands: biogeographic patterns and geology. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:1160-1185. [PMID: 33749122 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the traditional biogeographic model, the Galápagos Islands appeared a few million years ago in a sea where no other islands existed and were colonized from areas outside the region. However, recent work has shown that the Galápagos hotspot is 139 million years old (Early Cretaceous), and so groups are likely to have survived at the hotspot by dispersal of populations onto new islands from older ones. This process of metapopulation dynamics means that species can persist indefinitely in an oceanic region, as long as new islands are being produced. Metapopulations can also undergo vicariance into two metapopulations, for example at active island arcs that are rifted by transform faults. We reviewed the geographic relationships of Galápagos groups and found 10 biogeographic patterns that are shared by at least two groups. Each of the patterns coincides spatially with a major tectonic structure; these structures include: the East Pacific Rise; west Pacific and American subduction zones; large igneous plateaus in the Pacific; Alisitos terrane (Baja California), Guerrero terrane (western Mexico); rifting of North and South America; formation of the Caribbean Plateau by the Galápagos hotspot, and its eastward movement; accretion of Galápagos hotspot tracks; Andean uplift; and displacement on the Romeral fault system. All these geological features were active in the Cretaceous, suggesting that geological change at that time caused vicariance in widespread ancestors. The present distributions are explicable if ancestors survived as metapopulations occupying both the Galápagos hotspot and other regions before differentiating, more or less in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Heads
- Buffalo Museum of Science, 1020 Humboldt Parkway, Buffalo, NY, 14211-1293, U.S.A
| | - John R Grehan
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, 3215 Hull Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32611, U.S.A
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5
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Meerow AW, Gardner EM, Nakamura K. Phylogenomics of the Andean Tetraploid Clade of the American Amaryllidaceae (Subfamily Amaryllidoideae): Unlocking a Polyploid Generic Radiation Abetted by Continental Geodynamics. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:582422. [PMID: 33250911 PMCID: PMC7674842 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.582422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
One of the two major clades of the endemic American Amaryllidaceae subfam. Amaryllidoideae constitutes the tetraploid-derived (n = 23) Andean-centered tribes, most of which have 46 chromosomes. Despite progress in resolving phylogenetic relationships of the group with plastid and nrDNA, certain subclades were poorly resolved or weakly supported in those previous studies. Sequence capture using anchored hybrid enrichment was employed across 95 species of the clade along with five outgroups and generated sequences of 524 nuclear genes and a partial plastome. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses were conducted on concatenated supermatrices, and coalescent-based species tree analyses were run on the gene trees, followed by hybridization network, age diversification and biogeographic analyses. The four tribes Clinantheae, Eucharideae, Eustephieae, and Hymenocallideae (sister to Clinantheae) are resolved in all analyses with > 90 and mostly 100% support, as are almost all genera within them. Nuclear gene supermatrix and species tree results were largely in concordance; however, some instances of cytonuclear discordance were evident. Hybridization network analysis identified significant reticulation in Clinanthus, Hymenocallis, Stenomesson and the subclade of Eucharideae comprising Eucharis, Caliphruria, and Urceolina. Our data support a previous treatment of the latter as a single genus, Urceolina, with the addition of Eucrosia dodsonii. Biogeographic analysis and penalized likelihood age estimation suggests an origin in the Cauca, Desert and Puna Neotropical bioprovinces for the complex in the mid-Oligocene, with more dispersals than vicariances in its history, but no extinctions. Hymenocallis represents the only instance of long-distance vicariance from the tropical Andean origin of its tribe Hymenocallideae. The absence of extinctions correlates with the lack of diversification rate shifts within the clade. The Eucharideae experienced a sudden lineage radiation ca. 10 Mya. We tie much of the divergences in the Andean-centered lineages to the rise of the Andes, and suggest that the Amotape-Huancabamba Zone functioned as both a corridor (dispersal) and a barrier to migration (vicariance). Several taxonomic changes are made. This is the largest DNA sequence data set to be applied within Amaryllidaceae to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan W. Meerow
- USDA-ARS-SHRS, National Clonal Germplasm Repository, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Elliot M. Gardner
- Singapore Botanic Gardens, National Parks Board, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kyoko Nakamura
- USDA-ARS-SHRS, National Clonal Germplasm Repository, Miami, FL, United States
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6
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Segovia RA, Pennington RT, Baker TR, Coelho de Souza F, Neves DM, Davis CC, Armesto JJ, Olivera-Filho AT, Dexter KG. Freezing and water availability structure the evolutionary diversity of trees across the Americas. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaaz5373. [PMID: 32494713 PMCID: PMC7202884 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaz5373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The historical course of evolutionary diversification shapes the current distribution of biodiversity, but the main forces constraining diversification are still a subject of debate. We unveil the evolutionary structure of tree species assemblages across the Americas to assess whether an inability to move or an inability to evolve is the predominant constraint in plant diversification and biogeography. We find a fundamental divide in tree lineage composition between tropical and extratropical environments, defined by the absence versus presence of freezing temperatures. Within the Neotropics, we uncover a further evolutionary split between moist and dry forests. Our results demonstrate that American tree lineages tend to retain their ancestral environmental relationships and that phylogenetic niche conservatism is the primary force structuring the distribution of tree biodiversity. Our study establishes the pervasive importance of niche conservatism to community assembly even at intercontinental scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo A. Segovia
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Santiago, Chile
| | - R. Toby Pennington
- Tropical Diversity Section, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Tim R. Baker
- School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Fernanda Coelho de Souza
- School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília (UNB), Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Brasília 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Danilo M. Neves
- Department of Botany, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Charles C. Davis
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Juan J. Armesto
- Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad, Santiago, Chile
- Departamento de Ecología, Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Ary T. Olivera-Filho
- Department of Botany, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Kyle G. Dexter
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Tropical Diversity Section, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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7
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Heads M. Passive uplift of plant and animal populations during mountain‐building. Cladistics 2019; 35:550-572. [DOI: 10.1111/cla.12368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Heads
- Buffalo Museum of Science 1020 Humboldt Parkway Buffalo NY 14211‐1293 USA
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Cortés AJ, Garzón LN, Valencia JB, Madriñán S. On the Causes of Rapid Diversification in the Páramos: Isolation by Ecology and Genomic Divergence in Espeletia. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1700. [PMID: 30581444 PMCID: PMC6294130 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
How diversity arises and what is the relative role of allopatric and ecological divergence are among the most persistent questions in evolution and ecology. Here, we assessed whether ecological divergence has enhanced the diversification of the Neotropical alpine plant complex Espeletia, also known as frailejones. This genus has one of the highest diversification rates ever reported and is distributed in the world's fastest evolving biodiversity hotspot, the Páramo (Neotropical alpine grasslands at elevations of c. 2800-4700 m). Our goal was to determine whether ecology plays a role in divergence within the Espeletia complex by quantifying genome-wide patterns of ecological divergence. We characterized 162 samples of the three most common and contrasting ecotypes (distinct morphotypes occupying particular habitats) co-occurring in six localities in the northern Andes using Genotyping by Sequencing. Contrasting ecotypes were caulescent cloud forest populations, caulescent populations from wind-sheltered and well-irrigated depressions and acaulescent populations from wind-exposed drier slopes. We found high polymorphism with a total of 1,273 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that defined the relationships among nine genetic clusters. We quantified allelic associations of these markers with localities and habitats using 18 different general and mixed-effects statistical models that accounted for phylogenetic distance. Despite that these models always yielded more SNPs associated with the localities, markers associated with the habitat types were recovered too. We found strong evidence for isolation-by-distance (IBD) across populations despite rampant gene flow, as expected for plant groups with limited seed dispersal. Contrasts between populations of different habitat types showed that an isolation-by-environment (IBE) trend emerged and masked the IBD signal. Maximum likelihood estimation of the number of migrants per generation (Nem) among ecotypes confirmed the IBE pattern. This result illustrates the importance of mountains' environmental variation at a local scale in generating rapid morphological radiations and maintaining multiple adaptations in a fast-evolving ecosystem like the Páramo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés J. Cortés
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Luz N. Garzón
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Jhon B. Valencia
- Facultad de Ingeniera y Administracin, Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Palmira, Palmira, Colombia
| | - Santiago Madriñán
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
- Jardín Botánico de Cartagena “Guillermo Piñeres”, Turbaco, Colombia
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