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Pintore R, Hutchinson JR, Bishop PJ, Tsai HP, Houssaye A. The evolution of femoral morphology in giant non-avian theropod dinosaurs. PALEOBIOLOGY 2024; 50:308-329. [PMID: 38846629 PMCID: PMC7616063 DOI: 10.1017/pab.2024.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Theropods are obligate bipedal dinosaurs that appeared 230 million years ago and are still extant as birds. Their history is characterized by extreme variations in body mass, with gigantism evolving convergently between many lineages. However, no quantification of hindlimb functional morphology has shown if these body mass increases led to similar specializations between distinct lineages. Here we studied femoral shape variation across 41 species of theropods (n= 68 specimens) using a high-density 3D geometric morphometric approach. We demonstrated that the heaviest theropods evolved wider epiphyses and a more distally located fourth trochanter, as previously demonstrated in early archosaurs, along with an upturned femoral head and a mediodistal crest that extended proximally along the shaft. Phylogenetically informed analyses highlighted that these traits evolved convergently within six major theropod lineages, regardless of their maximum body mass. Conversely, the most gracile femora were distinct from the rest of the dataset, which we interpret as a femoral specialization to "miniaturization" evolving close to Avialae (bird lineage). Our results support a gradual evolution of known "avian" features, such as the fusion between lesser and greater trochanters and a reduction of the epiphyses' offset, independently from body mass variations, which may relate to a more "avian" type of locomotion (more knee-than hip-driven). The distinction between body mass variations and a more "avian" locomotion is represented by a decoupling in the mediodistal crest morphology, whose biomechanical nature should be studied to better understand the importance of its functional role in gigantism, miniaturization and higher parasagittal abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Pintore
- Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV) / UMR 7179. CNRS / Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, FR
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | | | - Peter J. Bishop
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, AU
| | - Henry P. Tsai
- Department of Biology, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, USA
| | - Alexandra Houssaye
- Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV) / UMR 7179. CNRS / Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, FR
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2
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Lacerda MBS, Bittencourt JS, Hutchinson JR. Reconstruction of the pelvic girdle and hindlimb musculature of the early tetanurans Piatnitzkysauridae (Theropoda, Megalosauroidea). J Anat 2024; 244:557-593. [PMID: 38037880 PMCID: PMC10941590 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Piatnitzkysauridae were Jurassic theropods that represented the earliest diverging branch of Megalosauroidea, being one of the earliest lineages to have evolved moderate body size. This clade's typical body size and some unusual anatomical features raise questions about locomotor function and specializations to aid in body support; and other palaeobiological issues. Biomechanical models and simulations can illuminate how extinct animals may have moved, but require anatomical data as inputs. With a phylogenetic context, osteological evidence, and neontological data on anatomy, it is possible to infer the musculature of extinct taxa. Here, we reconstructed the hindlimb musculature of Piatnitzkysauridae (Condorraptor, Marshosaurus, and Piatnitzkysaurus). We chose this clade for future usage in biomechanics, for comparisons with myological reconstructions of other theropods, and for the resulting evolutionary implications of our reconstructions; differential preservation affects these inferences, so we discuss these issues as well. We considered 32 muscles in total: for Piatnitzkysaurus, the attachments of 29 muscles could be inferred based on the osteological correlates; meanwhile, in Condorraptor and Marshosaurus, we respectively inferred 21 and 12 muscles. We found great anatomical similarity within Piatnitzkysauridae, but differences such as the origin of M. ambiens and size of M. caudofemoralis brevis are present. Similarities were evident with Aves, such as the division of the M. iliofemoralis externus and M. iliotrochantericus caudalis and a broad depression for the M. gastrocnemius pars medialis origin on the cnemial crest. Nevertheless, we infer plesiomorphic features such as the origins of M. puboischiofemoralis internus 1 around the "cuppedicus" fossa and M. ischiotrochantericus medially on the ischium. As the first attempt to reconstruct muscles in early tetanurans, our study allows a more complete understanding of myological evolution in theropod pelvic appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro B. S. Lacerda
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldUK
- Pós‐Graduação em ZoologiaInstituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Jonathas S. Bittencourt
- Departamento de GeologiaInstituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldUK
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3
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Manafzadeh AR, Gatesy SM, Bhullar BAS. Articular surface interactions distinguish dinosaurian locomotor joint poses. Nat Commun 2024; 15:854. [PMID: 38365765 PMCID: PMC10873393 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44832-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Our knowledge of vertebrate functional evolution depends on inferences about joint function in extinct taxa. Without rigorous criteria for evaluating joint articulation, however, such analyses risk misleading reconstructions of vertebrate animal motion. Here we propose an approach for synthesizing raycast-based measurements of 3-D articular overlap, symmetry, and congruence into a quantitative "articulation score" for any non-interpenetrating six-degree-of-freedom joint configuration. We apply our methodology to bicondylar hindlimb joints of two extant dinosaurs (guineafowl, emu) and, through comparison with in vivo kinematics, find that locomotor joint poses consistently have high articulation scores. We then exploit this relationship to constrain reconstruction of a pedal walking stride cycle for the extinct dinosaur Deinonychus antirrhopus, demonstrating the utility of our approach. As joint articulation is investigated in more living animals, the framework we establish here can be expanded to accommodate additional joints and clades, facilitating improved understanding of vertebrate animal motion and its evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armita R Manafzadeh
- Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
- Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| | - Stephen M Gatesy
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
| | - Bhart-Anjan S Bhullar
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
- Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
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4
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Wiseman AL, Charles JP, Hutchinson JR. Static versus dynamic muscle modelling in extinct species: a biomechanical case study of the Australopithecus afarensis pelvis and lower extremity. PeerJ 2024; 12:e16821. [PMID: 38313026 PMCID: PMC10838096 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The force a muscle generates is dependent on muscle structure, in which fibre length, pennation angle and tendon slack length all influence force production. Muscles are not preserved in the fossil record and these parameters must be estimated when constructing a musculoskeletal model. Here, we test the capability of digitally reconstructed muscles of the Australopithecus afarensis model (specimen AL 288-1) to maintain an upright, single-support limb posture. Our aim was to ascertain the influence that different architectural estimation methods have on muscle specialisation and on the subsequent inferences that can be extrapolated about limb function. Parameters were estimated for 36 muscles in the pelvis and lower limb and seven different musculoskeletal models of AL 288-1 were produced. These parameters represented either a 'static' Hill-type muscle model (n = 4 variants) which only incorporated force, or instead a 'dynamic' Hill-type muscle model with an elastic tendon and fibres that could vary force-length-velocity properties (n = 3 variants). Each muscle's fibre length, pennation angle, tendon slack length and maximal isometric force were calculated based upon different input variables. Static (inverse) simulations were computed in which the vertical and mediolateral ground reaction forces (GRF) were incrementally increased until limb collapse (simulation failure). All AL 288-1 variants produced somewhat similar simulated muscle activation patterns, but the maximum vertical GRF that could be exerted on a single limb was not consistent between models. Three of the four static-muscle models were unable to support >1.8 times body weight and produced models that under-performed. The dynamic-muscle models were stronger. Comparative results with a human model imply that similar muscle group activations between species are needed to sustain single-limb support at maximally applied GRFs in terms of the simplified static simulations (e.g., same walking pose) used here. This approach demonstrated the range of outputs that can be generated for a model of an extinct individual. Despite mostly comparable outputs, the models diverged mostly in terms of strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh L.A. Wiseman
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - James P. Charles
- Evolutionary Morphology and Biomechanics Lab, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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5
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Macaulay S, Hoehfurtner T, Cross SRR, Marek RD, Hutchinson JR, Schachner ER, Maher AE, Bates KT. Decoupling body shape and mass distribution in birds and their dinosaurian ancestors. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1575. [PMID: 36949094 PMCID: PMC10033513 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37317-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
It is accepted that non-avian theropod dinosaurs, with their long muscular tails and small forelimbs, had a centre-of-mass close to the hip, while extant birds, with their reduced tails and enlarged wings have their mass centred more cranially. Transition between these states is considered crucial to two key innovations in the avian locomotor system: crouched bipedalism and powered flight. Here we use image-based models to challenge this dichotomy. Rather than a phylogenetic distinction between 'dinosaurian' and 'avian' conditions, we find terrestrial versus volant taxa occupy distinct regions of centre-of-mass morphospace consistent with the disparate demands of terrestrial bipedalism and flight. We track this decoupled evolution of body shape and mass distribution through bird evolution, including the origin of centre-of-mass positions more advantageous for flight and major reversions coincident with terrestriality. We recover modularity in the evolution of limb proportions and centre-of-mass that suggests fully crouched bipedalism evolved after powered flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Macaulay
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Tatjana Hoehfurtner
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Samuel R R Cross
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Ryan D Marek
- Department of Cell & Development Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, Anatomy Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Emma R Schachner
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Alice E Maher
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK.
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6
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Gônet J, Bardin J, Girondot M, Hutchinson JR, Laurin M. Locomotor and postural diversity among reptiles viewed through the prism of femoral microanatomy: Palaeobiological implications for some Permian and Mesozoic taxa. J Anat 2023; 242:891-916. [PMID: 36807199 PMCID: PMC10093171 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The water-to-land transition by the first tetrapod vertebrates represents a key stage in their evolution. Selection pressures exerted by this new environment on animals led to the emergence of new locomotor and postural strategies that favoured access to different ecological niches and contributed to their evolutionary success. Today, amniotes show great locomotor and postural diversity, particularly among Reptilia, whose extant representatives include parasagittally locomoting erect and crouched bipeds (birds), sub-parasagittal 'semi-erect' quadrupeds (crocodylians) and sprawling quadrupeds (squamates and turtles). But the different steps leading to such diversity remain enigmatic and the type of locomotion adopted by many extinct species raises questions. This is notably the case of certain Triassic taxa such as Euparkeria and Marasuchus. The exploration of the bone microanatomy in reptiles could help to overcome these uncertainties. Indeed, this locomotor and postural diversity is accompanied by great microanatomical disparity. On land, the bones of the appendicular skeleton support the weight of the body and are subject to multiple constraints that partly shape their external and internal morphology. Here we show how microanatomical parameters measured in cross-section, such as bone compactness or the position of the medullocortical transition, can be related to locomotion. We hypothesised that this could be due to variations in cortical thickness. Using statistical methods that take phylogeny into account (phylogenetic flexible discriminant analyses), we develop different models of locomotion from a sample of femur cross-sections from 51 reptile species. We use these models to infer locomotion and posture in 7 extinct reptile taxa for which they remain debated or not fully clear. Our models produced reliable inferences for taxa that preceded and followed the quadruped/biped and sprawling/erect transitions, notably within the Captorhinidae and Dinosauria. For taxa contemporary with these transitions, such as Terrestrisuchus and Marasuchus, the inferences are more questionable. We use linear models to investigate the effect of body mass and functional ecology on our inference models. We show that body mass seems to significantly impact our model predictions in most cases, unlike the functional ecology. Finally, we illustrate how taphonomic processes can impact certain microanatomical parameters, especially the eccentricity of the section, while addressing some other potential limitations of our methods. Our study provides insight into the evolution of enigmatic locomotion in various early reptiles. Our models and methods could be used by palaeontologists to infer the locomotion and posture in other extinct reptile taxa, especially when considered in combination with other lines of evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Gônet
- Centre de recherche en paléontologie - Paris, UMR 7207, Sorbonne Université, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, France
| | - Jérémie Bardin
- Centre de recherche en paléontologie - Paris, UMR 7207, Sorbonne Université, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, France
| | - Marc Girondot
- Laboratoire écologie, systématique et évolution, UMR 8079, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Orsay, France
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Hatfield, UK
| | - Michel Laurin
- Centre de recherche en paléontologie - Paris, UMR 7207, Sorbonne Université, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, France
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7
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Gônet J, Bardin J, Girondot M, Hutchinson JR, Laurin M. Unravelling the postural diversity of mammals: Contribution of humeral cross-sections to palaeobiological inferences. J MAMM EVOL 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-023-09652-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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8
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Demuth OE, Wiseman ALA, Hutchinson JR. Quantitative biomechanical assessment of locomotor capabilities of the stem archosaur Euparkeria capensis. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221195. [PMID: 36704253 PMCID: PMC9874271 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Birds and crocodylians are the only remaining members of Archosauria (ruling reptiles) and they exhibit major differences in posture and gait, which are polar opposites in terms of locomotor strategies. Their broader lineages (Avemetatarsalia and Pseudosuchia) evolved a multitude of locomotor modes in the Triassic and Jurassic periods, including several occurrences of bipedalism. The exact timings and frequencies of bipedal origins within archosaurs, and thus their ancestral capabilities, are contentious. It is often suggested that archosaurs ancestrally exhibited some form of bipedalism. Euparkeria capensis is a central taxon for the investigation of locomotion in archosaurs due to its phylogenetic position and intermediate skeletal morphology, and is argued to be representative of facultative bipedalism in this group. However, no studies to date have biomechanically tested if bipedality was feasible in Eupakeria. Here, we use musculoskeletal models and static simulations in its hindlimb to test the influences of body posture and muscle parameter estimation methods on locomotor potential. Our analyses show that the resulting negative pitching moments around the centre of mass were prohibitive to sustainable bipedality. We conclude that it is unlikely that Euparkeria was facultatively bipedal, and was probably quadrupedal, rendering the inference of ancestral bipedal abilities in Archosauria unlikely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver E. Demuth
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ashleigh L. A. Wiseman
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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9
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Egawa S, Griffin CT, Bishop PJ, Pintore R, Tsai HP, Botelho JF, Smith-Paredes D, Kuratani S, Norell MA, Nesbitt SJ, Hutchinson JR, Bhullar BAS. The dinosaurian femoral head experienced a morphogenetic shift from torsion to growth along the avian stem. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220740. [PMID: 36196539 PMCID: PMC9532989 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant evolutionary shifts in locomotor behaviour often involve comparatively subtle anatomical transitions. For dinosaurian and avian evolution, medial overhang of the proximal femur has been central to discussions. However, there is an apparent conflict with regard to the evolutionary origin of the dinosaurian femoral head, with neontological and palaeontological data suggesting seemingly incongruent hypotheses. To reconcile this, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of morphogenesis of the proximal end of the femur from early archosaurs to crown birds. Embryological comparison of living archosaurs (crocodylians and birds) suggests the acquisition of the greater overhang of the femoral head in dinosaurs results from additional growth of the proximal end in the medial-ward direction. On the other hand, the fossil record suggests that this overhang was acquired by torsion of the proximal end, which projected in a more rostral direction ancestrally. We reconcile this apparent conflict by inferring that the medial overhang of the dinosaur femoral head was initially acquired by torsion, which was then superseded by mediad growth. Details of anatomical shifts in fossil forms support this hypothesis, and their biomechanical implications are congruent with the general consensus regarding broader morpho-functional evolution on the avian stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Egawa
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.,Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Japan.,Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Christopher T Griffin
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Romain Pintore
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK.,Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV)/UMR 7179, CNRS/Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Henry P Tsai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
| | - João F Botelho
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.,Department of Biology, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, CT 06515, USA.,Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Smith-Paredes
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Shigeru Kuratani
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Japan
| | - Mark A Norell
- Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Bhart-Anjan S Bhullar
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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10
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Demuth OE, Wiseman ALA, van Beesel J, Mallison H, Hutchinson JR. Three-dimensional polygonal muscle modelling and line of action estimation in living and extinct taxa. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3358. [PMID: 35233027 PMCID: PMC8888607 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07074-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomechanical models and simulations of musculoskeletal function rely on accurate muscle parameters, such as muscle masses and lines of action, to estimate force production potential and moment arms. These parameters are often obtained through destructive techniques (i.e., dissection) in living taxa, frequently hindering the measurement of other relevant parameters from a single individual, thus making it necessary to combine multiple specimens and/or sources. Estimating these parameters in extinct taxa is even more challenging as soft tissues are rarely preserved in fossil taxa and the skeletal remains contain relatively little information about the size or exact path of a muscle. Here we describe a new protocol that facilitates the estimation of missing muscle parameters (i.e., muscle volume and path) for extant and extinct taxa. We created three-dimensional volumetric reconstructions for the hindlimb muscles of the extant Nile crocodile and extinct stem-archosaur Euparkeria, and the shoulder muscles of an extant gorilla to demonstrate the broad applicability of this methodology across living and extinct animal clades. Additionally, our method can be combined with surface geometry data digitally captured during dissection, thus facilitating downstream analyses. We evaluated the estimated muscle masses against physical measurements to test their accuracy in estimating missing parameters. Our estimated muscle masses generally compare favourably with segmented iodine-stained muscles and almost all fall within or close to the range of observed muscle masses, thus indicating that our estimates are reliable and the resulting lines of action calculated sufficiently accurately. This method has potential for diverse applications in evolutionary morphology and biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver E Demuth
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Ashleigh L A Wiseman
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Julia van Beesel
- Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Heinrich Mallison
- Zoological Museum, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Palaeo3D, Rain am Lech, Germany
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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11
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Gatesy SM, Manafzadeh AR, Bishop PJ, Turner ML, Kambic RE, Cuff AR, Hutchinson JR. A proposed standard for quantifying 3-D hindlimb joint poses in living and extinct archosaurs. J Anat 2022; 241:101-118. [PMID: 35118654 PMCID: PMC9178381 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The last common ancestor of birds and crocodylians plus all of its descendants (clade Archosauria) dominated terrestrial Mesozoic ecosystems, giving rise to disparate body plans, sizes, and modes of locomotion. As in the fields of vertebrate morphology and paleontology more generally, studies of archosaur skeletal structure have come to depend on tools for acquiring, measuring, and exploring three‐dimensional (3‐D) digital models. Such models, in turn, form the basis for many analyses of musculoskeletal function. A set of shared conventions for describing 3‐D pose (joint or limb configuration) and 3‐D kinematics (change in pose through time) is essential for fostering comparison of posture/movement among such varied species, as well as for maximizing communication among scientists. Following researchers in human biomechanics, we propose a standard methodological approach for measuring the relative position and orientation of the major segments of the archosaur pelvis and hindlimb in 3‐D. We describe the construction of anatomical and joint coordinate systems using the extant guineafowl and alligator as examples. Our new standards are then applied to three extinct taxa sampled from the wider range of morphological, postural, and kinematic variation that has arisen across >250 million years of archosaur evolution. These proposed conventions, and the founding principles upon which they are based, can also serve as starting points for measuring poses between elements within a hindlimb segment, for establishing coordinate systems in the forelimb and axial skeleton, or for applying our archosaurian system more broadly to different vertebrate clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Gatesy
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Armita R Manafzadeh
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Morgan L Turner
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Robert E Kambic
- Department of Biology, Hood College, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew R Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Human Anatomy Resource Centre, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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12
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Bishop PJ, Falisse A, De Groote F, Hutchinson JR. Predictive simulations of running gait reveal a critical dynamic role for the tail in bipedal dinosaur locomotion. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabi7348. [PMID: 34550734 PMCID: PMC8457660 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abi7348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Locomotion has influenced the ecology, evolution, and extinction of species throughout history, yet studying locomotion in the fossil record is challenging. Computational biomechanics can provide novel insight by mechanistically relating observed anatomy to whole-animal function and behavior. Here, we leverage optimal control methods to generate the first fully predictive, three-dimensional, muscle-driven simulations of locomotion in an extinct terrestrial vertebrate, the bipedal non-avian theropod dinosaur Coelophysis. Unexpectedly, our simulations involved pronounced lateroflexion movements of the tail. Rather than just being a static counterbalance, simulations indicate that the tail played a crucial dynamic role, with lateroflexion acting as a passive, physics-based mechanism for regulating angular momentum and improving locomotor economy, analogous to the swinging arms of humans. We infer this mechanism to have existed in many other bipedal non-avian dinosaurs as well, and our methodology provides new avenues for exploring the functional diversity of dinosaur tails in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland 4011, Australia
- Corresponding author. (P.J.B.); (J.R.H.)
| | - Antoine Falisse
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Friedl De Groote
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Corresponding author. (P.J.B.); (J.R.H.)
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13
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Abstract
Giant land vertebrates have evolved more than 30 times, notably in dinosaurs and mammals. The evolutionary and biomechanical perspectives considered here unify data from extant and extinct species, assessing current theory regarding how the locomotor biomechanics of giants has evolved. In terrestrial tetrapods, isometric and allometric scaling patterns of bones are evident throughout evolutionary history, reflecting general trends and lineage-specific divergences as animals evolve giant size. Added to data on the scaling of other supportive tissues and neuromuscular control, these patterns illuminate how lineages of giant tetrapods each evolved into robust forms adapted to the constraints of gigantism, but with some morphological variation. Insights from scaling of the leverage of limbs and trends in maximal speed reinforce the idea that, beyond 100-300 kg of body mass, tetrapods reduce their locomotor abilities, and eventually may lose entire behaviours such as galloping or even running. Compared with prehistory, extant megafaunas are depauperate in diversity and morphological disparity; therefore, turning to the fossil record can tell us more about the evolutionary biomechanics of giant tetrapods. Interspecific variation and uncertainty about unknown aspects of form and function in living and extinct taxa still render it impossible to use first principles of theoretical biomechanics to tightly bound the limits of gigantism. Yet sauropod dinosaurs demonstrate that >50 tonne masses repeatedly evolved, with body plans quite different from those of mammalian giants. Considering the largest bipedal dinosaurs, and the disparity in locomotor function of modern megafauna, this shows that even in terrestrial giants there is flexibility allowing divergent locomotor specialisations.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R. Hutchinson
- Structure & Motion Lab, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA,UK
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14
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Veneziano A, Cazenave M, Alfieri F, Panetta D, Marchi D. Novel strategies for the characterization of cancellous bone morphology: Virtual isolation and analysis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2021; 175:920-930. [PMID: 33811768 PMCID: PMC8359981 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The advent of micro-computed tomography (μCT) made cancellous bone more accessible than ever before. Nevertheless, the characterization of cancellous bone is made difficult by its inherent complexity and the difficulties in defining homology across datasets. Here we propose novel virtual methodological approaches to overcome those issues and complement existing methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS We present a protocol for the isolation of the whole cancellous region within a μCT scanned bone. This method overcomes the subsampling issues and allows studying cancellous bone as a single unit. We test the protocol on a set of primate bones. In addition, we describe a set of morphological indices calculated on the topological skeleton of the cancellous bone: node density, node connectivity, trabecular angle, trabecular tortuosity, and fractal dimension. The usage of the indices is shown on a small comparative sample of primate femoral heads. RESULTS The isolation protocol proves reliable in isolating cancellous structures from several different bones, regardless of their shape. The indices seem to detect some functional differences, although further testing on comparative samples is needed to clarify their potential for the study of cancellous architecture. CONCLUSIONS The approaches presented overcome some of the difficulties of trabecular bone studies. The methods presented here represent an alternative or supporting method to the existing tools available to address the biomechanics of cancellous bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Veneziano
- Synchrotron Radiation for Medical Physics (SYRMEP), Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A, Trieste, Italy
| | - Marine Cazenave
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre at the School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Anatomy and Histology, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Fabio Alfieri
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniele Panetta
- Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Damiano Marchi
- Department of Biology, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in PalaeoSciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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15
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Bishop PJ, Michel KB, Falisse A, Cuff AR, Allen VR, De Groote F, Hutchinson JR. Computational modelling of muscle fibre operating ranges in the hindlimb of a small ground bird (Eudromia elegans), with implications for modelling locomotion in extinct species. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008843. [PMID: 33793558 PMCID: PMC8016346 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The arrangement and physiology of muscle fibres can strongly influence musculoskeletal function and whole-organismal performance. However, experimental investigation of muscle function during in vivo activity is typically limited to relatively few muscles in a given system. Computational models and simulations of the musculoskeletal system can partly overcome these limitations, by exploring the dynamics of muscles, tendons and other tissues in a robust and quantitative fashion. Here, a high-fidelity, 26-degree-of-freedom musculoskeletal model was developed of the hindlimb of a small ground bird, the elegant-crested tinamou (Eudromia elegans, ~550 g), including all the major muscles of the limb (36 actuators per leg). The model was integrated with biplanar fluoroscopy (XROMM) and forceplate data for walking and running, where dynamic optimization was used to estimate muscle excitations and fibre length changes throughout both gaits. Following this, a series of static simulations over the total range of physiological limb postures were performed, to circumscribe the bounds of possible variation in fibre length. During gait, fibre lengths for all muscles remained between 0.5 to 1.21 times optimal fibre length, but operated mostly on the ascending limb and plateau of the active force-length curve, a result that parallels previous experimental findings for birds, humans and other species. However, the ranges of fibre length varied considerably among individual muscles, especially when considered across the total possible range of joint excursion. Net length change of muscle-tendon units was mostly less than optimal fibre length, sometimes markedly so, suggesting that approaches that use muscle-tendon length change to estimate optimal fibre length in extinct species are likely underestimating this important parameter for many muscles. The results of this study clarify and broaden understanding of muscle function in extant animals, and can help refine approaches used to study extinct species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Krijn B. Michel
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Antoine Falisse
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew R. Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Vivian R. Allen
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | | | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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16
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Wiseman ALA, Bishop PJ, Demuth OE, Cuff AR, Michel KB, Hutchinson JR. Musculoskeletal modelling of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) hindlimb: Effects of limb posture on leverage during terrestrial locomotion. J Anat 2021; 239:424-444. [PMID: 33754362 PMCID: PMC8273584 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a three-dimensional, computational biomechanical model of a juvenile Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) pelvis and hindlimb, composed of 47 pelvic limb muscles, to investigate muscle function. We tested whether crocodiles, which are known to use a variety of limb postures during movement, use limb orientations (joint angles) that optimise the moment arms (leverages) or moment-generating capacities of their muscles during different limb postures ranging from a high walk to a sprawling motion. We also describe the three-dimensional (3D) kinematics of the crocodylian hindlimb during terrestrial locomotion across an instrumented walkway and a treadmill captured via X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology (biplanar fluoroscopy; 'XROMM'). We reconstructed the 3D positions and orientations of each of the hindlimb bones and used dissection data for muscle lines of action to reconstruct a focal, subject-specific 3D musculoskeletal model. Motion data for different styles of walking (a high, crouched, bended and two types of sprawling motion) were fed into the 3D model to identify whether any joints adopted near-optimal poses for leverage across each of the behaviours. We found that (1) the hip adductors and knee extensors had their largest leverages during sprawling postures and (2) more erect postures typically involved greater peak moment arms about the hip (flexion-extension), knee (flexion) and metatarsophalangeal (flexion) joints. The results did not fully support the hypothesis that optimal poses are present during different locomotory behaviours because the peak capacities were not always reached around mid-stance phase. Furthermore, we obtained few clear trends for isometric moment-generating capacities. Therefore, perhaps peak muscular leverage in Nile crocodiles is instead reached either in early/late stance or possibly during swing phase or other locomotory behaviours that were not studied here, such as non-terrestrial movement. Alternatively, our findings could reflect a trade-off between having to execute different postures, meaning that hindlimb muscle leverage is not optimised for any singular posture or behaviour. Our model, however, provides a comprehensive set of 3D estimates of muscle actions in extant crocodiles which can form a basis for investigating muscle function in extinct archosaurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh L A Wiseman
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.,Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
| | - Oliver E Demuth
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Andrew R Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Krijn B Michel
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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17
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Rhodes MM, Henderson DM, Currie PJ. Maniraptoran pelvic musculature highlights evolutionary patterns in theropod locomotion on the line to birds. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10855. [PMID: 33717681 PMCID: PMC7937347 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of palaeobiology and often investigated by comparing osteological structures and proportions. Previous studies document a stepwise accumulation of avian-like features in theropod dinosaurs that accelerates in the clade Maniraptora. However, the soft tissues that influenced the skeleton offer another perspective on locomotory adaptations. Examination of the pelvis for osteological correlates of hind limb and tail musculature allowed reconstruction of primary locomotory muscles across theropods and their closest extant relatives. Additionally, the areas of pelvic muscle origins were quantified to measure relative differences within and between taxa, to compare morphological features associated with cursoriality, and offer insight into the evolution of locomotor modules. Locomotory inferences based on myology often corroborate those based on osteology, although they occasionally conflict and indicate greater complexity than previously appreciated. Maniraptoran pelvic musculature underscores previous studies noting the multifaceted nature of cursoriality and suggests that a more punctuated step in caudal decoupling occurred at or near the base of Maniraptora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Rhodes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Philip J Currie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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18
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Allen VR, Kilbourne BM, Hutchinson JR. The evolution of pelvic limb muscle moment arms in bird-line archosaurs. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/12/eabe2778. [PMID: 33741593 PMCID: PMC7978429 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe2778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Bipedal locomotion evolved along the archosaurian lineage to birds, shifting from "hip-based" to "knee-based" mechanisms. However, the roles of individual muscles in these changes and their evolutionary timings remain obscure. Using 13 three-dimensional musculoskeletal models of the hindlimbs of bird-line archosaurs, we quantify how the moment arms (i.e., leverages) of 35 locomotor muscles evolved. Our results support two hypotheses: From early theropod dinosaurs to birds, knee flexors' moment arms decreased relative to knee extensors', and medial long-axis rotator moment arms for the hip increased (trading off with decreased hip abductor moment arms). Our results reveal how, from the Triassic Period, bipedal theropod dinosaurs gradually modified their hindlimb form and function, shifting more from hip-based to knee-based locomotion and hip-abductor to hip-rotator balancing mechanisms inherited by birds. Yet, we also discover unexpected ancestral specializations in larger Jurassic theropods, lost later in the bird-line, complicating the paradigm of gradual transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Allen
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - B M Kilbourne
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institut für Evolutions-und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK.
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19
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Broyde S, Dempsey M, Wang L, Cox PG, Fagan M, Bates KT. Evolutionary biomechanics: hard tissues and soft evidence? Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202809. [PMID: 33593183 PMCID: PMC7935025 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomechanical modelling is a powerful tool for quantifying the evolution of functional performance in extinct animals to understand key anatomical innovations and selective pressures driving major evolutionary radiations. However, the fossil record is composed predominantly of hard parts, forcing palaeontologists to reconstruct soft tissue properties in such models. Rarely are these reconstruction approaches validated on extant animals, despite soft tissue properties being highly determinant of functional performance. The extent to which soft tissue reconstructions and biomechanical models accurately predict quantitative or even qualitative patterns in macroevolutionary studies is therefore unknown. Here, we modelled the masticatory system in extant rodents to objectively test the ability of current muscle reconstruction methods to correctly identify quantitative and qualitative differences between macroevolutionary morphotypes. Baseline models generated using measured soft tissue properties yielded differences in muscle proportions, bite force, and bone stress expected between extant sciuromorph, myomorph, and hystricomorph rodents. However, predictions from models generated using reconstruction methods typically used in fossil studies varied widely from high levels of quantitative accuracy to a failure to correctly capture even relative differences between macroevolutionary morphotypes. Our novel experiment emphasizes that correctly reconstructing even qualitative differences between taxa in a macroevolutionary radiation is challenging using current methods. Future studies of fossil taxa should incorporate systematic assessments of reconstruction error into their hypothesis testing and, moreover, seek to expand primary datasets on muscle properties in extant taxa to better inform soft tissue reconstructions in macroevolutionary studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Broyde
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Matthew Dempsey
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Linjie Wang
- Department of Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Philip G. Cox
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, PalaeoHub, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, PalaeoHub, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Michael Fagan
- Department of Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Karl T. Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
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20
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Demuth OE, Rayfield EJ, Hutchinson JR. 3D hindlimb joint mobility of the stem-archosaur Euparkeria capensis with implications for postural evolution within Archosauria. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15357. [PMID: 32958770 PMCID: PMC7506000 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70175-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Triassic archosaurs and stem-archosaurs show a remarkable disparity in their ankle and pelvis morphologies. However, the implications of these different morphologies for specific functions are still poorly understood. Here, we present the first quantitative analysis into the locomotor abilities of a stem-archosaur applying 3D modelling techniques. μCT scans of multiple specimens of Euparkeria capensis enabled the reconstruction and three-dimensional articulation of the hindlimb. The joint mobility of the hindlimb was quantified in 3D to address previous qualitative hypotheses regarding the stance of Euparkeria. Our range of motion analysis implies the potential for an erect posture, consistent with the hip morphology, allowing the femur to be fully adducted to position the feet beneath the body. A fully sprawling pose appears unlikely but a wide range of hip abduction remained feasible-the hip appears quite mobile. The oblique mesotarsal ankle joint in Euparkeria implies, however, a more abducted hindlimb. This is consistent with a mosaic of ancestral and derived osteological characters in the hindlimb, and might suggest a moderately adducted posture for Euparkeria. Our results support a single origin of a pillar-erect hip morphology, ancestral to Eucrocopoda that preceded later development of a hinge-like ankle joint and a more erect hindlimb posture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver E Demuth
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK.
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK.
| | - Emily J Rayfield
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
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21
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Differing trabecular bone architecture in dinosaurs and mammals contribute to stiffness and limits on bone strain. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237042. [PMID: 32813735 PMCID: PMC7437811 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The largest dinosaurs were enormous animals whose body mass placed massive gravitational loads on their skeleton. Previous studies investigated dinosaurian bone strength and biomechanics, but the relationships between dinosaurian trabecular bone architecture and mechanical behavior has not been studied. In this study, trabecular bone samples from the distal femur and proximal tibia of dinosaurs ranging in body mass from 23-8,000 kg were investigated. The trabecular architecture was quantified from micro-computed tomography scans and allometric scaling relationships were used to determine how the trabecular bone architectural indices changed with body mass. Trabecular bone mechanical behavior was investigated by finite element modeling. It was found that dinosaurian trabecular bone volume fraction is positively correlated with body mass similar to what is observed for extant mammalian species, while trabecular spacing, number, and connectivity density in dinosaurs is negatively correlated with body mass, exhibiting opposite behavior from extant mammals. Furthermore, it was found that trabecular bone apparent modulus is positively correlated with body mass in dinosaurian species, while no correlation was observed for mammalian species. Additionally, trabecular bone tensile and compressive principal strains were not correlated with body mass in mammalian or dinosaurian species. Trabecular bone apparent modulus was positively correlated with trabecular spacing in mammals and positively correlated with connectivity density in dinosaurs, but these differential architectural effects on trabecular bone apparent modulus limit average trabecular bone tissue strains to below 3,000 microstrain for estimated high levels of physiological loading in both mammals and dinosaurs.
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22
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Charles JP, Grant B, D'Août K, Bates KT. Subject-specific muscle properties from diffusion tensor imaging significantly improve the accuracy of musculoskeletal models. J Anat 2020; 237:941-959. [PMID: 32598483 PMCID: PMC7542200 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Musculoskeletal modelling is an important platform on which to study the biomechanics of morphological structures in vertebrates and is widely used in clinical, zoological and palaeontological fields. The popularity of this approach stems from the potential to non-invasively quantify biologically important but difficult-to-measure functional parameters. However, while it is known that model predictions are highly sensitive to input values, it is standard practice to build models by combining musculoskeletal data from different sources resulting in 'generic' models for a given species. At present, there are little quantitative data on how merging disparate anatomical data in models impacts the accuracy of these functional predictions. This issue is addressed herein by quantifying the accuracy of both subject-specific human limb models containing individualised muscle force-generating properties and models built using generic properties from both elderly and young individuals, relative to experimental muscle torques obtained from an isokinetic dynamometer. The results show that subject-specific models predict isokinetic muscle torques to a greater degree of accuracy than generic models at the ankle (root-mean-squared error - 7.9% vs. 49.3% in elderly anatomy-based models), knee (13.2% vs. 57.3%) and hip (21.9% vs. 32.8%). These results have important implications for the choice of musculoskeletal properties in future modelling studies, and the relatively high level of accuracy achieved in the subject-specific models suggests that such models can potentially address questions about inter-subject variations of muscle functions. However, despite relatively high levels of overall accuracy, models built using averaged generic muscle architecture data from young, healthy individuals may lack the resolution and accuracy required to study such differences between individuals, at least in certain circumstances. The results do not wholly discourage the continued use of averaged generic data in musculoskeletal modelling studies but do emphasise the need for to maximise the accuracy of input values if studying intra-species form-function relationships in the musculoskeletal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Charles
- Department of Musculoskeletal and Ageing Science , Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Barbara Grant
- Department of Musculoskeletal and Ageing Science , Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Department of Musculoskeletal and Ageing Science , Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal and Ageing Science , Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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23
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Tsai HP, Middleton KM, Hutchinson JR, Holliday CM. More than one way to be a giant: Convergence and disparity in the hip joints of saurischian dinosaurs. Evolution 2020; 74:1654-1681. [PMID: 32433795 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Saurischian dinosaurs evolved seven orders of magnitude in body mass, as well as a wide diversity of hip joint morphology and locomotor postures. The very largest saurischians possess incongruent bony hip joints, suggesting that large volumes of soft tissues mediated hip articulation. To understand the evolutionary trends and functional relationships between body size and hip anatomy of saurischians, we tested the relationships among discrete and continuous morphological characters using phylogenetically corrected regression. Giant theropods and sauropods convergently evolved highly cartilaginous hip joints by reducing supraacetabular ossifications, a condition unlike that in early dinosauromorphs. However, transitions in femoral and acetabular soft tissues indicate that large sauropods and theropods built their hip joints in fundamentally different ways. In sauropods, the femoral head possesses irregularly rugose subchondral surfaces for thick hyaline cartilage. Hip articulation was achieved primarily using the highly cartilaginous femoral head and the supraacetabular labrum on the acetabular ceiling. In contrast, theropods covered their femoral head and neck with thinner hyaline cartilage and maintained extensive articulation between the fibrocartilaginous femoral neck and the antitrochanter. These findings suggest that the hip joints of giant sauropods were built to sustain large compressive loads, whereas those of giant theropods experienced compression and shear forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry P Tsai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, 65897
| | - Kevin M Middleton
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Lab, The Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Casey M Holliday
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212
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24
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Morales-García NM, Burgess TD, Hill JJ, Gill PG, Rayfield EJ. The use of extruded finite-element models as a novel alternative to tomography-based models: a case study using early mammal jaws. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190674. [PMID: 31822222 PMCID: PMC6936041 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Finite-element (FE) analysis has been used in palaeobiology to assess the mechanical performance of the jaw. It uses two types of models: tomography-based three-dimensional (3D) models (very accurate, not always accessible) and two-dimensional (2D) models (quick and easy to build, good for broad-scale studies, cannot obtain absolute stress and strain values). Here, we introduce extruded FE models, which provide fairly accurate mechanical performance results, while remaining low-cost, quick and easy to build. These are simplified 3D models built from lateral outlines of a relatively flat jaw and extruded to its average width. There are two types: extruded (flat mediolaterally) and enhanced extruded (accounts for width differences in the ascending ramus). Here, we compare mechanical performance values resulting from four types of FE models (i.e. tomography-based 3D, extruded, enhanced extruded and 2D) in Morganucodon and Kuehneotherium. In terms of absolute values, both types of extruded model perform well in comparison to the tomography-based 3D models, but enhanced extruded models perform better. In terms of overall patterns, all models produce similar results. Extruded FE models constitute a viable alternative to the use of tomography-based 3D models, particularly in relatively flat bones.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas D Burgess
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK
| | - Jennifer J Hill
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.,Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - Pamela G Gill
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.,Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Emily J Rayfield
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Memorial Building, Queens Road, Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK
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Bishop PJ. Testing the function of dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) 'sickle claws' through musculoskeletal modelling and optimization. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7577. [PMID: 31523517 PMCID: PMC6717499 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dromaeosaurids were a clade of bird-like, carnivorous dinosaurs that are well known for their characteristic morphology of pedal digit II, which bore an enlarged, sickle-shaped claw and permitted an extreme range of flexion–extension. Proposed functions for the claw often revolve around predation, but the exact manner of use varies widely. Musculoskeletal modelling provides an avenue to quantitatively investigate the biomechanics of this enigmatic system, and thereby test different behavioural hypotheses. Here, a musculoskeletal model of the hindlimb and pes of Deinonychus was developed, and mathematical optimization was used to assess the factors that maximize production of force at the claw tip. Optimization revealed that more crouched hindlimb postures (i.e., more flexed knees and ankles) and larger flexor muscle volumes consistently increased claw forces, although the optimal degree of digit flexion or extension depended on assumptions of muscle activity and fibre operating range. Interestingly, the magnitude of force capable of being produced at the claw tip was relatively small, arguing against regular transmission of a large proportion of body weight into a substrate principally via the claw tip. Such transmission would therefore likely have needed to occur via more proximal parts of the foot. Collectively, the results best support a grasping function for digit II (e.g., restraint of prey smaller than the dromaeosaurid’s own body size), although other behaviours involving flexed hindlimbs cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Farke AA, Beck BR, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part I-an examination of cancellous bone architecture in the hindlimb bones of theropods. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5778. [PMID: 30402347 PMCID: PMC6215452 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is the first of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous ('spongy') bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is widely known to be highly sensitive to its mechanical environment, and has previously been used to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates, especially primates. Despite great promise, cancellous bone architecture has remained little utilized for investigating locomotion in many other extinct vertebrate groups, such as dinosaurs. Documentation and quantification of architectural patterns across a whole bone, and across multiple bones, can provide much information on cancellous bone architectural patterns and variation across species. Additionally, this also lends itself to analysis of the musculoskeletal biomechanical factors involved in a direct, mechanistic fashion. On this premise, computed tomographic and image analysis techniques were used to describe and analyse the three-dimensional architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs for the first time. A comprehensive survey across many extant and extinct species is produced, identifying several patterns of similarity and contrast between groups. For instance, more stemward non-avian theropods (e.g. ceratosaurs and tyrannosaurids) exhibit cancellous bone architectures more comparable to that present in humans, whereas species more closely related to birds (e.g. paravians) exhibit architectural patterns bearing greater similarity to those of extant birds. Many of the observed patterns may be linked to particular aspects of locomotor biomechanics, such as the degree of hip or knee flexion during stance and gait. A further important observation is the abundance of markedly oblique trabeculae in the diaphyses of the femur and tibia of birds, which in large species produces spiralling patterns along the endosteal surface. Not only do these observations provide new insight into theropod anatomy and behaviour, they also provide the foundation for mechanistic testing of locomotor hypotheses via musculoskeletal biomechanical modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Andrew A. Farke
- Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Belinda R. Beck
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Exercise and Human Performance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part II-a new approach to inferring posture and locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5779. [PMID: 30402348 PMCID: PMC6215447 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper is the second of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is widely known to be highly sensitive to its mechanical environment, and therefore has the potential to provide insight into locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates such as dinosaurs. Here in Part II, a new biomechanical modelling approach is outlined, one which mechanistically links cancellous bone architectural patterns with three-dimensional musculoskeletal and finite element modelling of the hindlimb. In particular, the architecture of cancellous bone is used to derive a single 'characteristic posture' for a given species-one in which bone continuum-level principal stresses best align with cancellous bone fabric-and thereby clarify hindlimb locomotor biomechanics. The quasi-static approach was validated for an extant theropod, the chicken, and is shown to provide a good estimate of limb posture at around mid-stance. It also provides reasonable predictions of bone loading mechanics, especially for the proximal hindlimb, and also provides a broadly accurate assessment of muscle recruitment insofar as limb stabilization is concerned. In addition to being useful for better understanding locomotor biomechanics in extant species, the approach hence provides a new avenue by which to analyse, test and refine palaeobiomechanical hypotheses, not just for extinct theropods, but potentially many other extinct tetrapod groups as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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