A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Geometridae (Lepidoptera) with a focus on enigmatic small subfamilies

A new distribution and host record for the rare moth, Callioratis millari (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), and some ecological observations

Callioratis millari Hampson (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) is a Critically Endangered moth endemic to South Africa. Despite extensive searches, it was previously known only from the Entumeni Nature Reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, where its larvae exclusively feed on the cycad Stangeria eriopus (Kunze) Baill (Cycadales: Stangeriaceae). In July 2022, a new population of C. millari was discovered in the Kabouga section of Addo Elephant National Park in the Eastern Cape. Larvae of C. millari were feeding on the cycad Encephalartos caffer (Thunb.) Lehm (Cycadales: Zamiaceae), which also constitutes a new host record. In June 2023, we determined larval incidence and herbivory at this new locality, offering insights into the ecological requirements of C. millari. Known C. millari localities, although ecologically different, share low altitudes (700-950 m a.s.l.), moderate to high rainfall, and grassy habitats with sparse woody cover. A total of 59 larvae were counted in Kabouga, mostly in the fifth and sixth (final) instars. Herbivory incidence was lower on smaller plants and those covered by other vegetation. The flight period of adult C. millari likely occurs between mid-March and April in Kabouga, but further investigation is needed to clarify this. The peak period of larval occurrence in Kabouga occurs during the driest and coldest months of the year (May-July). Considering limited habitat availability, host plant poaching, and the risk of untimely fires, the species should be considered highly threatened. This study adds to our understanding of the biology of C. millari and provides information on its ecological requirements and may contribute to making informed management decisions.

A DNA barcode library of Austrian geometridae (Lepidoptera) reveals high potential for DNA-based species identification

Situated in the Eastern section of the European Alps, Austria encompasses a great diversity of different habitat types, ranging from alpine to lowland Pannonian ecosystems, and a correspondingly high level of species diversity, some of which has been addressed in various DNA barcoding projects. Here, we report a DNA barcode library of all the 476 species of Geometridae (Lepidoptera) that have been recorded in Austria. As far as possible, species were sampled from different Austrian regions in order to capture intraspecific genetic variation. In total, 2500 DNA barcode sequences, representing 438 species, were generated in this study. For complete coverage of Austrian geometrid species in the subsequent analyses, the dataset was supplemented with DNA barcodes from specimens of non-Austrian origin. Species delimitations by ASAP, BIN and bPTP methods yielded 465, 510 and 948 molecular operational taxonomic units, respectively. Congruency of BIN and ASAP partitions with morphospecies assignments was reasonably high (85% of morphospecies in unique partitions), whereas bPTP appeared to overestimate the number of taxonomic units. The study furthermore identified taxonomically relevant cases of morphospecies splitting and sharing in the molecular partitions. We conclude that DNA barcoding and sequence analysis revealed a high potential for accurate DNA-based identification of the Austrian Geometridae species. Additionally, the study provides an updated checklist of the geometrid moths of Austria.

Predator selection on phenotypic variability of cryptic and aposematic moths

Natural selection generally favours phenotypic variability in camouflaged organisms, whereas aposematic organisms are expected to evolve a more uniform warning coloration. However, no comprehensive analysis of the phenotypic consequences of predator selection in aposematic and cryptic species exists. Using state-of-the-art image analysis, we examine 2800 wing images of 82 moth species accessed via three online museum databases. We test whether anti-predator strategy (i.e., camouflage or aposematism) explains intraspecific variation in wing colour and pattern across northern hemisphere moths. In addition, we test two mutually non-exclusive, ecological hypotheses to explain variation in colour pattern: diel-activity or dietary-niche. In this work, taking into account phylogenetic relationships, moth phenotypic variability is best explained by anti-predator strategy with camouflaged moths being more variable in wing patterning than aposematic species.

Systematics and integrative taxonomic revision of the tribe Scopulini Duponchel, 1845 in Iran (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Sterrhinae)

The Iranian taxa of the tribe Scopulini are taxonomically revised. The systematic positions of the genera Cinglis Guene, 1858, Glossotrophia Prout, 1913, Pseudocinglis Hausmann, 1994 and Scopuloides Hausmann, 1994, with uncertain validity and/or position within the tribe Scopulini Duponchel, 1845 (Lepidoptera: Sterrhinae), are further elucidated by use of one mitochondrial and up to nine protein-coding nuclear gene regions. Available type specimens of the described species and more than 2,600 additional specimens were morphologically investigated. In addition, over 400 genitalia preparations were made and examined together with distribution data and DNA barcodes. As a result of the multi-gene analysis, the genera Cinglis stat. rev. and Scopuloides stat. rev. are re-validated at the genus level. The genus Pseudocinglis syn. nov. is regarded as a junior synonym of the genus Cinglis stat. rev. and Glossotrophia syn. nov. is regarded as a junior synonym of the genus Scopula. Cinglis eurata (Prout, 1913) comb. nov. and Cinglis benigna (Brandt, 1941) comb. nov. are combined with the genus Cinglis. Additionally, Cinglis benigna amseli (Wiltshire, 1967) syn. nov. is regarded as a synonym of C. benigna. Scopula adulteraria (Erschov, 1874) stat. nov. is raised from subspecies to species rank; Scopula iranaria Bytinski-Salz & Brandt, 1937 syn. nov. is synonymized with S. flaccidaria (Zeller, 1852); S. transcaspica taftanica Brandt, 1941 syn. nov. is synonymized with S. transcaspica Prout, 1935; S. diffinaria asiatica (Brandt, 1938) syn. nov. is synonymized with S. diffinaria (Prout, 1913) and Glossotrophia bullata Vojnits, 1986 syn. nov. is synonymized with Scopula sacraria ariana (Ebert, 1965). The female genitalia of Scopula lactarioides Brandt, 1941 are described and illustrated for the first time. In total, the presence of 33 species of Scopulini in Iran is confirmed. Wing patterns, male and female genitalia and diagnostic characters of most Iranian Scopulini species are depicted and their distribution ranges are mapped.

The genome sequence of the Light Emerald, Campaea margaritaria (Linnaeus, 1761)

We present a genome assembly from an individual male Campaea margaritaria (the Light Emerald; Arthropoda; Insecta; Lepidoptera; Geometridae). The genome sequence is 335.2 megabases in span. The whole assembly is scaffolded into 31 chromosomal pseudomolecules, including the Z sex chromosome. The mitochondrial genome has also been assembled and is 16.9 kilobases in length. Gene annotation of this assembly on Ensembl identified 16,403 protein coding genes.

The known species of the genus Achagua Rindge, 1983, with the description of three new species from the Neotropics (Geometridae: Ennominae)

The previously monotypic geometrid genus Achagua (Ennominae: Nacophorini) is reviewed following the discovery of three undescribed species. New species are as follows: A. cooperae n. sp. described from Costa Rica, A. magna n. sp. described from Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; and Achagua velata n. sp. described from French Guiana. Available COI barcode data is briefly reviewed, and adult and genitalic illustrations are provided for each of the four known species.

Molecular phylogeny, divergence time, biogeography and trends in host plant usage in the agriculturally important tortricid tribe Grapholitini (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Olethreutinae)

The leaf-roller moth tribe Grapholitini comprises about 1200 described species and contains numerous notorious pests of fruits and seeds. The phylogeny of the tribe has been little studied using contemporary methods, and the monophyly of several genera remains questionable. In order to provide a more robust phylogenetic framework for the group, we conducted a multiple-gene phylogenetic analysis of 104 species representing 27 genera of Grapholitini and 29 outgroup species. Divergence time, ancestral area, and host plant usage were also inferred to explore evolutionary trends in the tribe. Our analyses indicate that Larisa and Corticivora, traditionally assigned to Grapholitini, are best excluded from the tribe. After removal of these two genera, the tribe is found to be monophyletic, represented by two major lineages-a Dichrorampha clade and a Cydia clade, the latter of which can be divided into seven generic groups. The genus Grapholita was found to be polyphyletic, comprising three different clades, and we propose three genera to accommodate these groups: Grapholita (sensu stricto), Aspila (formerly a subgenus of Grapholita) and Ephippiphora (formerly considered a synonym of Grapholita). We summarize each generic group, including related genera not included in our analysis, providing morphological, pheromone and food plant characters that support particular branches within the molecular hypotheses. Biogeographical analyses indicate that Grapholitini probably originated in the Nearctic, Afrotropical and Neotropical regions in the Lutetian of the middle Eocene (ca. 44.3 Ma). Our results also indicate that most groups in Grapholitini originated from Fabaceae-feeding monophagous or oligophagous ancestors, and that host plant shifts probably promoted species diversification within the tribe.

Comparative and experimental studies on the relationship between body size and countershading in caterpillars

Countershading is a gradient of colouration in which the illuminated dorsal surfaces are darker than the unilluminated ventral surface. It is widespread in the animal kingdom and endows the body with a more uniform colour to decrease the chance of detection by predators. Although recent empirical studies support the theory of survival advantage conferred by countershading, this camouflage strategy has evolved only in some of the cryptic animals, and our understanding of the factors that affect the evolution of countershading is limited. This study examined the association between body size and countershading using lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars) as a model system. Specifically, we predicted that countershading may have selectively evolved in large-sized species among cryptic caterpillars if (1) large size constrains camouflage which facilitates the evolution of a trait reinforcing their crypsis and (2) the survival advantage of countershading is size-dependent. Phylogenetic analyses of four different lepidopteran families (Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Erebidae, and Geometridae) suggest equivocal results: countershading was more likely to be found in larger species in Saturniidae but not in the other families. The field predation experiment assuming avian predators did not support size-dependent predation in countershaded prey. Collectively, we found only weak evidence that body size is associated with countershading in caterpillars. Our results suggest that body size is not a universal factor that has shaped the interspecific variation in countershading observed in caterpillars.

Tribal assignment of the genus Eumera Staudinger, 1892, using multi-gene analysis, with description of a new species from Iran (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae)

The geometrid moth genus Eumera Staudinger, 1892 consists of five yellow-orange-pinkish species distributed in the western Palearctic, with uncertain tribal classification within the geometrid subfamily Ennominae. In this study, we explored the phylogenetic position of the genus Eumera. Therefore, a concatenated dataset was analyzed, which includes one mitochondrial and up to ten protein-coding genetic markers per taxa. Moreover, we compared some external and internal morphological traits to other closely related genera. Our phylogenetic inference and comparative morphology suggested that Eumera should be included in the tribe Prosopolophini. In addition, a new species, Eumera rajaeii sp. nov. Wanke & Shirvani is described from southern Iran, and diagnosed by molecular data and morphological features. The distribution of the Iranian species is shown on a map. We illustrate external characters and male genitalia of three closely related Eumera species.

The mitochondrial genomes of the Geometroidea (Lepidoptera) and their phylogenetic implications

The Geometroidea is a large superfamily of Lepidoptera in species composition and contains numerous economically important pest species that cause great loss in crop and forest production. However, understanding of mitogenomes remains limited due to relatively fewer mitogenomes previously reported for this megadiverse group. Here, we sequenced and annotated nine mitogenomes for Geometridae and further analyzed the mitogenomic evolution and phylogeny of the whole superfamily. All nine mitogenomes contained 37 mitochondrial genes typical in insects, and gene organization was conserved except for Somatina indicataria. In S. indicataria, the positions of two tRNAs were rearranged. The trnR was located before trnA instead of after trnA typical in Lepidoptera, whereas the trnE was detected rarely on the minority strand (N-strand). This trnR-trnA-trnN-trnS1-trnE-trnF newly recognized in S. indicataria represents the first gene rearrangement reported for Geometroidea and is also unique in Lepidoptera. Besides, nucleotide composition analyses showed little heterogeneity among the four geometrid subfamilies involved herein, and overall, nad6 and atp8 have higher nucleotide diversity and Ka/Ks rate in Geometridae. In addition, the taxonomic assignments of the nine species, historically defined by morphological studies, were confirmed by various phylogenetic analyses based on the hitherto most extensive mitogenomic sampling in Geometroidea.

Heat tolerance variation reveals vulnerability of tropical herbivore-parasitoid interactions to climate change

Assessing the heat tolerance (CTmax) of organisms is central to understand the impact of climate change on biodiversity. While both environment and evolutionary history affect CTmax, it remains unclear how these factors and their interplay influence ecological interactions, communities and ecosystems under climate change. We collected and reared caterpillars and parasitoids from canopy and ground layers in different seasons in a tropical rainforest. We tested the CTmax and Thermal Safety Margins (TSM) of these food webs with implications for how species interactions could shift under climate change. We identified strong influence of phylogeny in herbivore-parasitoid community heat tolerance. The TSM of all insects were narrower in the canopy and parasitoids had lower heat tolerance compared to their hosts. Our CTmax-based simulation showed higher herbivore-parasitoid food web instability under climate change than previously assumed, highlighting the vulnerability of parasitoids and related herbivore control in tropical rainforests, particularly in the forest canopy.

Disclisioproctaedmondsii (Butler, 1882) comb. nov. (Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Larentiinae)

Background

The generic assignment of the geometrid moth Xanthorhoeedmondsii (Butler, 1882) (Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Larentiinae), originally described under Hypochroma Guenée, [1858], a junior homonym of Hypochroma Herrich-Schäffer, [1855] (Geometridae, Ennominae), is assessed using genitalia morphology and analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences.

New information

Morphological characters revealed closeness to the type species of Disclisioprocta Wallengren, 1861 (Larentiinae). In agreement with morphology, the molecular analysis clustered X.edmondsii with species of Disclisioprocta in a well-supported monophyletic group distantly related to members of Xanthorhoe Hübner, [1825]. Accordingly, Disclisioproctaedmondsii (Butler, 1882) comb. nov. is proposed.

Enhanced Resolution of Evolution and Phylogeny of the Moths Inferred from Nineteen Mitochondrial Genomes

The vast majority (approximately 90%) of Lepidoptera species belong to moths whose phylogeny has been widely discussed and highly controversial. For the further understanding of phylogenetic relationships of moths, nineteen nearly complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of moths involved in six major lineages were sequenced and characterized. These mitogenomes ranged from 15,177 bp (Cyclidia fractifasciata) to 15,749 bp (Ophthalmitis albosignaria) in length, comprising of the core 37 mitochondrial genes (13 protein-coding genes (PCGs) + 22 tRNAs + two rRNAs) and an incomplete control region. The order and orientation of genes showed the same pattern and the gene order of trnM-trnI-trnQ showed a typical rearrangement of Lepidoptera compared with the ancestral order of trnI-trnQ-trnM. Among these 13 PCGs, ATP8 exhibited the fastest evolutionary rate, and Drepanidae showed the highest average evolutionary rate among six families involved in 66 species. The phylogenetic analyses based on the dataset of 13 PCGs suggested the relationship of (Notodontidae + (Noctuidae + Erebidae)) + (Geometridae + (Sphingidae + Drepanidae)), which suggested a slightly different pattern from previous studies. Most groups were well defined in the subfamily level except Erebidae, which was not fully consistent across bayesian and maximum likelihood methods. Several formerly unassigned tribes of Geometridae were suggested based on mitogenome sequences despite a not very strong support in partial nodes. The study of mitogenomes of these moths can provide fundamental information of mitogenome architecture, and the phylogenetic position of moths, and contributes to further phylogeographical studies and the biological control of pests.

Characterization and phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial genome of xanthabraxas hemionata (lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Xanthabraxas hemionata (Guenée, 1858) is a medium-sized and slender-bodied forest pest in China. In this study, we sequenced and analyzed the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of X. hemionata. This mitogenome was 15,309 bp long and encoded 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs), and 2 ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs). The gene order was conserved and identical to that of most other previously sequenced Geometridae species. Most of the PCGs of X. hemionata, except for cox1, have the conventional ATN start codon. Except for four genes (cox1, cox2, nad5, and nad4) that end with the incomplete stop codon T−, all other PCGs terminated with the stop codon TAA. Phylogenetic analysis positioned X. hemionata in a well-supported clade with the other Ennominae species. The relationships (Ennominae + (Sterrhinae + Larentiinae)) were supported by Geometridae.

A supertree of Northern European macromoths

Ecological and life-history data on the Northern European macromoth (Lepidoptera: Macroheterocera) fauna is widely available and ideal for use in answering phylogeny-based research questions: for example, in comparative biology. However, phylogenetic information for such studies lags behind. Here, as a synthesis of all currently available phylogenetic information on the group, we produce a supertree of 114 Northern European macromoth genera (in four superfamilies, with Geometroidea considered separately), providing the most complete phylogenetic picture of this fauna available to date. In doing so, we assess those parts of the phylogeny that are well resolved and those that are uncertain. Furthermore, we identify those genera for which phylogenetic information is currently too poor to include in such a supertree, or entirely absent, as targets for future work. As an aid to studies involving these genera, we provide information on their likely positions within the macromoth tree. With phylogenies playing an ever more important role in the field, this supertree should be useful in informing future ecological and evolutionary studies.

A New Monotypic Genus from the American Southwest to accommodate “Semiothisa” kuschea (Geometridae: Ennominae)

The monotypic Metrica new genus is described for Metrica kuschea (Guedet, 1939) new combination. The genus is placed in the tribe Ennomini Duponchel and hypothesized to be most closely related to a Neotropical species of “Isochromodes” Warren. Adult morphology, including male and female genitalia are illustrated, and molecular data supporting the transfer of “Semiothisa” kuschea (Macariini Guenée) to the Ennomini are presented.  

A morphological appraisal of the new subfamily Epidesmiinae (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) with an overview of all geometrid subfamilies

Our study revises Epidesmiinae, the first new Geometridae subfamily that has been described in 127 years. We studied the morphological characters of representatives from all genera currently classified into Epidesmiinae, and compared those with all other geometrid subfamilies. Epidesmiinae were found to have an Australasian distribution, with one species occurring in the Indo-Malayan realm. They compose a lineage diagnosable by a combination of the following morphological characters: male antennae unipectinate; labial palps elongated (particularly the second segment), vom Raths’s organ with an elliptical invagination; forewing with two areoles; hindwing with one anal vein; gnathos arms fused, granulate or dentate apically; female genitalia with two signa, one stellate, another an elongated and spinose plate. We also present a summary of diagnostic characters of all geometrid subfamilies, which confirm the lack of single unique morphological characters. The limited information on the biology and ecology of Epidesmiinae species are summarized, indicating that some species fly during the day, most adult records are from the Southern Hemisphere summer months and larvae are found on Myrtaceae. We transfer Arcina Walker, 1863 from Oenochrominae s.l. to Epidesmiinae. Epidesmiinae includes 102 species that are now classified into nine genera: Abraxaphantes, Adeixis, Arcina, Dichromodes, Ecphyas, Epidesmia, Phrataria, Phrixocomes and Systatica.

An inventory of geometrid moths (Lepidoptera: Geometroidea: Geometridae) of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India

The geometrid moths of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger reserve were studied during the years 2012 to 2016. Since collection of specimens was not permitted, only field notes, accompanied by photo documentation was undertaken. Two-hundred-and-sixty geometrid moths identified to various hierarchical levels of taxa and one new genus for southern India, are reported.

A database and checklist of geometrid moths (Lepidoptera) from Colombia

Background

Molecular DNA sequence data allow unprecedented advances in biodiversity assessments, monitoring schemes and taxonomic works, particularly in poorly-explored areas. They allow, for instance, the sorting of material rapidly into operational taxonomic units (such as BINs - Barcode Index Numbers), sequences can be subject to diverse analyses and, with linked metadata and physical vouchers, they can be examined further by experts. However, a prerequisite for their exploitation is the construction of reference libraries of DNA sequences that represent the existing biodiversity. To achieve these goals for Geometridae (Lepidoptera) moths in Colombia, expeditions were carried out to 26 localities in the northern part of the country in 2015–2019. The aim was to collect specimens and sequence their DNA barcodes and to record a fraction of the species richness and occurrences in one of the most biodiversity-rich countries. These data are the beginning of an identification guide to Colombian geometrid moths, whose identities are currently often provisional only, being morpho species or operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Prior to the current dataset, 99 Geometridae sequences forming 44 BINs from Colombia were publicly available on the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD), covering 20 species only.

New information

We enrich the Colombian Geometridae database significantly by including DNA barcodes, two nuclear markers, photos of vouchers and georeferenced occurrences of 281 specimens of geometrid moths from different localities. These specimens are classified into 80 genera. Analytical tools on BOLD clustered 157 of the mentioned sequences to existing BINs identified to species level, identified earlier by experts. Another 115 were assigned to BINs that were identified to genus or tribe level only. Eleven specimens did not match any existing BIN on BOLD and are, therefore, new additions to the database. It is likely that many BINs represent undescribed species. Nine short sequences (< 500bp) were not assigned to BINs, but identified to the lowest taxonomic category by expert taxonomists and with comparisons of type material photos. The released new genetic information will help to further progress the systematics of Geometridae. An illustrated catalogue of all new records allows validation of our identifications; it is also the first document of this kind for Colombian Geometridae. All specimens are deposited at the Museo de Zoología of Universidad de Sucre (MZUS), North Colombia. DNA BINs are reported in this study through dx.doi.org/10.5883/DS-GEOCO, the species occurrences are available on SIB Colombia https://sibcolombia.net/ and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) https://www.gbif.org/ through https://doi.org/10.15472/ucfmkh.

Complete mitochondrial genome of Hypomecis punctinalis Scopoli, 1763 and its phylogenetic position within family Geometridae

Hypomecis punctinalis Scopoli, 1763 belongs to the Lepidopteran family Geometridae. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of H. punctinalis. The mitogenome is 15,648 bp long and contains a typical set of genes (13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, and two rRNA genes) and a 484 bp AT-rich region. All PCGs start with ATN codons and stop at TAA codon except for cox1 using CGA as initiation codon and nad4 and nad5 using incomplete termination codon T. Within the mitogenome, 17 intergenic spacers and seven overlaps are founded. The intergenic nucleotides are 294 bp in total and two longest intervals locate between trnGln and nad2 as well as trnCys and trnTyr . The overlap nucleotides are 47 bp in total and the maximum overlap lies between cox2 and trnLys . The AT-rich region of the mitogenome contains an 'ATAGA + polyT' motif, three copies of 30-bp-repeat and a short polyA tail. The phylogenetic tree shows the relationships of four subfamilies of Geometridae are (((Ennominae + Geometrinae)+Larentiinae)+Sterrhinae)) and the relationships within subfamily Ennominae are ((((Erannis+Biston)+(Jankowskia+(Hypomecis+(Apocheima+Milionia))))+Ectropis)+Abraxas)+Phthonandria)+Celenna).

Degenerated, Undifferentiated, Rearranged, Lost: High Variability of Sex Chromosomes in Geometridae (Lepidoptera) Identified by Sex Chromatin

Sex chromatin is a conspicuous body that occurs in polyploid nuclei of most lepidopteran females and consists of numerous copies of the W sex chromosome. It is also a cytogenetic tool used to rapidly assess the W chromosome presence in Lepidoptera. However, certain chromosomal features could disrupt the formation of sex chromatin and lead to the false conclusion that the W chromosome is absent in the respective species. Here we tested the sex chromatin presence in 50 species of Geometridae. In eight selected species with either missing, atypical, or normal sex chromatin patterns, we performed a detailed karyotype analysis by means of comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The results showed a high diversity of W chromosomes and clarified the reasons for atypical sex chromatin, including the absence or poor differentiation of W, rearrangements leading to the neo-W emergence, possible association with the nucleolus, and the existence of multiple W chromosomes. In two species, we detected intraspecific variability in the sex chromatin status and sex chromosome constitution. We show that the sex chromatin is not a sufficient marker of the W chromosome presence, but it may be an excellent tool to pinpoint species with atypical sex chromosomes.

New distribution and range extension records of geometrid moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) from two western Himalayan protected areas

 This article presents new distribution and range extension records (including new records from the state of Uttarakhand) of 12 species of the Geometridae family along with their taxonomic records. The records are based on field collections, where sampling was done along elevation and vegetation gradients in the buffer zones of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, two prominent protected areas in the western Himalayan Indian state of Uttarakhand. DNA barcoding was performed for some of the species for confirmation of identification in addition to the morphological identifications. Voucher specimens are deposited in a public repository for future reference. 

Molecular phylogeny, classification, biogeography and diversification patterns of a diverse group of moths (Geometridae: Boarmiini)

Understanding how and why some groups have become more species-rich than others, and how past biogeography may have shaped their current distribution, are questions that evolutionary biologists have long attempted to answer. We investigated diversification patterns and historical biogeography of a hyperdiverse lineage of Lepidoptera, the geometrid moths, by studying its most species-rich tribe Boarmiini, which comprises ca. 200 genera and ca. known 3000 species. We inferred the evolutionary relationships of Boarmiini based on a dataset of 346 taxa, with up to eight genetic markers under a maximum likelihood approach. The monophyly of Boarmiini is strongly supported. However, the phylogenetic position of many taxa does not agree with current taxonomy, although the monophyly of most major genera within the tribe is supported after minor adjustments. Three genera are synonymized, one new combination is proposed, and four species are placed in incertae sedis within Boarmiini. Our results support the idea of a rapid initial diversification of Boarmiini, which also implies that no major taxonomic subdivisions of the group can currently be proposed. A time-calibrated tree and biogeographical analyses suggest that boarmiines appeared in Laurasia ca. 52 Mya, followed by dispersal events throughout the Australasian, African and Neotropical regions. Most of the transcontinental dispersal events occurred in the Eocene, a period of intense geological activity and rapid climate change. Diversification analyses showed a relatively constant diversification rate for all Boarmiini, except in one clade containing the species-rich genus Cleora. The present work represents a substantial contribution towards understanding the evolutionary origin of Boarmiini moths. Our results, inevitably biased by taxon sampling, highlight the difficulties with working on species-rich groups that have not received much attention outside of Europe. Specifically, poor knowledge of the natural history of geometrids (particularly in tropical clades) limits our ability to identify key innovations underlying the diversification of boarmiines.

A new macrolepidopteran moth (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in Miocene Dominican amber

A new genus and species of fossil moth, Miogeometrida chunjenshihi Zhang, Shih & Shih, gen. et sp. nov., assigned to Geometridae, is described from Miocene Dominican amber dating from 15-20 Mya. The new genus is characterized by the forewing without a fovea, R₁ not anastomosing with Sc, no areole formed by veins R₁ and Rs, R₁ and Rs₁ completely coincident, M₂ arising midway between M₁ and M₃, anal veins 1A and 2A fused for their entire lengths; and the hind wing with Rs running close to Sc + R₁ and M₂ absent.

Revision of the Orbamia Herbulot, 1966 group of genera with description of two new genera, ten new species, and two new subspecies (Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Ennominae, Cassymini)

The genus Orbamia Herbulot, 1966 is revised. Two new genera are described: Rabomia Hausmann & Tujuba, gen. nov. (type species: Ectropis ? subaurata Warren, 1899), and Morabia Hausmann & Tujuba, gen. nov. (type species: Morabia politzari Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov.). Ten new species and two new subspecies are described: Rabomia obscurior Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from western Africa, Morabia politzari Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Kenya, Morabia brunnea Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Zambia, Orbamia marginata Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Tanzania, Orbamia clarissima Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Kenya, Orbamia clarior Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Kenya, Orbamia obliqua Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Zambia, Orbamia obliqua parva Hausmann & Tujuba, subsp. nov., from South Africa, Orbamia abiyi Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Zambia, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Orbamia emanai Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov., from Ethiopia, Orbamia emanai lenzi Hausmann & Tujuba, subsp. nov., from Zambia and Malawi, and Orbamia balensis Hausmann & Tujuba, sp. nov. from Ethiopia. The taxon Lepiodes ocellata Warren, 1897 is raised from synonymy of O. octomaculata (Wallengren, 1872) to species rank (Zambia, Tanzania, Rwanda). The taxonomical analysis is based on both morphological and genetic cytochrome oxidase I (COI) data. Adults and male and female genitalia of all species are illustrated.

Review of recent taxonomic changes to the emerald moths (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Geometrinae)

BACKGROUND

The subfamily Geometrinae (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), commonly known as emerald moths, is an ecologically diverse group of moths with over 2,500 described species. Many taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of Geometrinae have been undertaken in the past decade, resulting in hundreds of new taxonomic changes since online publication of the most recent checklist in December 2007.

NEW INFORMATION

This review synthesises the last 12 years of alpha-taxonomic research in Geometrinae. A comprehensive list of Geometrinae genus- and species-group descriptions, synonymies, combinations and other taxonomic changes, made since 2007, is provided. Since 2007, the known species richness of Geometrinae has increased from 2,529 to 2,642 species; an updated list of all these species is presented in a supplementary spreadsheet.

Symmetry systems on the wings of Dichromodes Guenée (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) are unconstrained by venation

The nymphalid groundplan, an idealized schematic illustrating the essential elements of butterfly wing patterns, predicts a consistent relationship between color pattern and wing venation. Moths in the family Geometridae have wing shapes and patterns that often resemble those of butterflies, and until recently, this family was believed to be among butterflies’ closest relatives. However, an examination of the geometrid genus Dichromodes Guenée, 1858 shows no consistent relationship between the central symmetry system and wing venation. Whereas the distal edge of the central symmetry system is predicted to reach the costal margin proximal to the Subcostal vein in butterflies and acronictine moths, it has no consistent relationship with the Subcostal, Radius, or Radial Sector 1 veins in Dichromodes. This finding highlights developmental diversity that was previously overlooked due to the overwhelming preference for butterflies in studies of lepidopteran wing patterns.

Geometrid caterpillar in Eocene Baltic amber (Lepidoptera, Geometridae)

Lepidoptera have little fossilization potential due to the presence of delicate structures and hence are exceptional findings, even in ambers that allow their preservation in sufficient detail for interpretation. From Eocene Baltic amber, the volumetrically largest known deposit of amber, there has been no reliable report of any member of the Macrolepidoptera (informal group of higher moths and all butterflies). Any such lepidopteran fossil would provide insight into evolutionary processes during the Eocene, long after flowering plants had completed their initial radiation. Here, we report on a first geometrid caterpillar from Baltic amber which is described as the oldest evidence for the subfamily Ennominae (tribe Boarmiini) and as one of the oldest records of the currently mega-diverse family. The new finding provides an important calibration point for molecular clock analyses within the family Geometridae and predates the basal divergence of Boarmiini from 32–38 to 44 Mya. It also predates the occurrence of this highly specialized form of caterpillar locomotion that allows for rapid movement.