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Lamb CH, Pitré EM, Elshina E, Rigby CV, Bisht K, Oade MS, Jalal H, Myhrvold C, te Velthuis AJ. Quantification of influenza virus mini viral RNA dynamics using Cas13. bioRxiv 2024:2023.11.03.565460. [PMID: 37961440 PMCID: PMC10635118 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.03.565460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Influenza A virus RNA synthesis produces full-length and aberrant RNA molecules, which include defective viral genomes (DVG) and mini viral RNAs (mvRNA). Sequencing approaches have shown that aberrant RNA species may be present during infection, and that they can vary in size, segment origin, and sequence. Moreover, a subset of aberrant RNA molecules can bind and activate host pathogen receptor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), leading to innate immune signaling and the expression of type I and III interferons. Understanding the kinetics and distribution of these immunostimulatory aberrant RNA sequences is important for understanding their function in IAV infection. Here, we use an amplification-free LbuCas13a-based detection method to quantify mvRNA amplification dynamics and subcellular distributions. We show that our assay can quantify the copy numbers of specific mvRNA sequences in infected tissue culture cells, ferret upper and lower respiratory tract tissue infected with two different pandemic H1N1 IAV strains, or clinical nasopharyngeal swab extracts of hospitalized patients infected with seasonal H1N1 or H3N2 strains. In addition, we find dynamic differences between immunostimulatory and non-immunostimulatory mvRNAs, as well as among mvRNAs derived from different segments, during IAV infection. Overall, our results reveal a hitherto hidden diversity in the behavior of IAV mvRNAs and suggest that individual aberrant RNAs are not produced stochastically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin H. Lamb
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Emmanuelle M. Pitré
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Elizaveta Elshina
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Charlotte V. Rigby
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
- Public Health England, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Karishma Bisht
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Michael S. Oade
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Hamid Jalal
- Public Health England, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Cameron Myhrvold
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- Omenn-Darling Bioengineering Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
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Sabsay KR, te Velthuis AJ. Using structure prediction of negative sense RNA virus nucleoproteins to assess evolutionary relationships. bioRxiv 2024:2024.02.16.580771. [PMID: 38405982 PMCID: PMC10888975 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.16.580771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Negative sense RNA viruses (NSV) include some of the most detrimental human pathogens, including the influenza, Ebola and measles viruses. NSV genomes consist of one or multiple single-stranded RNA molecules that are encapsidated into one or more ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. Current evolutionary relationships within the NSV phylum are based on alignment of conserved RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain amino acid sequences. However, the RdRp-based phylogeny does not address whether other core proteins in the NSV genome evolved along the same trajectory. Moreover, the current classification of NSVs does not consistently match the segmented and non-segmented nature of negative-sense virus genomes. Viruses belonging to e.g. the Serpentovirales have a segmented genome but are classified among the non-segmented negative-sense RNA viruses. We hypothesized that RNA genome segmentation is not coupled to the RdRp domain, but rather to the nucleocapsid protein (NP) that forms RNP complexes with the viral RNA. Because NP sequences are too short to infer robust phylogenetic relationships, we here used experimentally-obtained and AlphaFold 2.0-predicted NP structures to probe whether evolutionary relationships can be estimated using NSV NP sequences and potentially improve our understanding of the relationships between NSV subphyla and the NSV genome organization. Following flexible structure alignments of modeled structures, we find that the structural homology of the NSV NPs reveals phylogenetic clusters that are consistent with the currently accepted NSV taxonomy based on RdRp sequences with one key difference: the NPs of the segmented Serpentovirales cluster with the other segmented NSV. In addition, we were able to assign viruses for which RdRp sequences are currently missing to phylogenetic clusters. Overall, our results suggest that the NSV RdRp and NP genes largely evolved along similar trajectories, that NP-based clustering is better correlated with the NSV genome structure organization, and that even short pieces of genetic, protein-coding information can be used to infer evolutionary relationships, potentially making metagenomic analyses more valuable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly R. Sabsay
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States
- Sigler Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States
| | - Aartjan J.W. te Velthuis
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States
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Funk M, Spronken MI, Bestebroer TM, de Bruin AC, Gultyaev AP, Fouchier RA, te Velthuis AJ, Richard M. Transient RNA structures underlie highly pathogenic avian influenza virus genesis. bioRxiv 2024:2024.01.11.574333. [PMID: 38370829 PMCID: PMC10871305 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.11.574333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) cause severe disease and high fatality in poultry1. They emerge exclusively from H5 and H7 low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs)2. Although insertion of a furin-cleavable multibasic cleavage site (MBCS) in the hemagglutinin gene was identified decades ago as the genetic basis for LPAIV-to-HPAIV transition3,4, the exact mechanisms underlying said insertion have remained unknown. Here we used an innovative combination of bioinformatic models to predict RNA structures forming around the influenza virus RNA polymerase during replication, and circular sequencing5 to reliably detect nucleotide insertions. We show that transient H5 hemagglutinin RNA structures predicted to trap the polymerase on purine-rich sequences drive nucleotide insertions characteristic of MBCSs, providing the first strong empirical evidence of RNA structure involvement in MBCS acquisition. Insertion frequencies at the H5 cleavage site were strongly affected by substitutions in flanking genomic regions altering predicted transient RNA structures. Introduction of H5-like cleavage site sequences and structures into an H6 hemagglutinin resulted in MBCS-yielding insertions never observed before in H6 viruses. Our results demonstrate that nucleotide insertions that underlie H5 HPAIV emergence result from a previously unknown RNA-structure-driven diversity-generating mechanism, which could be shared with other RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathis Funk
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique I. Spronken
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo M. Bestebroer
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anja C.M. de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander P. Gultyaev
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Group Imaging and Bioinformatics, Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS); Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ron A.M. Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aartjan J.W. te Velthuis
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology; Princeton University, 08544 New Jersey, United States
| | - Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience; Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Kimchi O, Larsen BB, Dunkley ORS, te Velthuis AJ, Myhrvold C. RNA structure modulates Cas13 activity and enables mismatch detection. bioRxiv 2023:2023.10.05.560533. [PMID: 37987004 PMCID: PMC10659300 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.05.560533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The RNA-targeting CRISPR nuclease Cas13 has emerged as a powerful tool for applications ranging from nucleic acid detection to transcriptome engineering and RNA imaging1-6. Cas13 is activated by the hybridization of a CRISPR RNA (crRNA) to a complementary single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) protospacer in a target RNA1,7. Though Cas13 is not activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in vitro, it paradoxically demonstrates robust RNA targeting in environments where the vast majority of RNAs are highly structured2,8. Understanding Cas13's mechanism of binding and activation will be key to improving its ability to detect and perturb RNA; however, the mechanism by which Cas13 binds structured RNAs remains unknown9. Here, we systematically probe the mechanism of LwaCas13a activation in response to RNA structure perturbations using a massively multiplexed screen. We find that there are two distinct sequence-independent modes by which secondary structure affects Cas13 activity: structure in the protospacer region competes with the crRNA and can be disrupted via a strand-displacement mechanism, while structure in the region 3' to the protospacer has an allosteric inhibitory effect. We leverage the kinetic nature of the strand displacement process to improve Cas13-based RNA detection, enhancing mismatch discrimination by up to 50-fold and enabling sequence-agnostic mutation identification at low (<1%) allele frequencies. Our work sets a new standard for CRISPR-based nucleic acid detection and will enable intelligent and secondary-structure-guided target selection while also expanding the range of RNAs available for targeting with Cas13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofer Kimchi
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
| | - Benjamin B. Larsen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
| | - Owen R. S. Dunkley
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
| | | | - Cameron Myhrvold
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
- Omenn-Darling Bioengineering Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544, USA
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Rigby C, Sabsay K, Bisht K, Eggink D, Jalal H, te Velthuis AJ. Evolution of transient RNA structure-RNA polymerase interactions in respiratory RNA virus genomes. bioRxiv 2023:2023.05.25.542331. [PMID: 37292879 PMCID: PMC10245964 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.25.542331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
RNA viruses are important human pathogens that cause seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. Examples are influenza A viruses (IAV) and coronaviruses (CoV). When emerging IAV and CoV spill over to humans, they adapt to evade immune responses and optimize their replication and spread in human cells. In IAV, adaptation occurs in all viral proteins, including the viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex. RNPs consists of a copy of the viral RNA polymerase, a double-helical coil of nucleoprotein, and one of the eight segments of the IAV RNA genome. The RNA segments and their transcripts are partially structured to coordinate the packaging of the viral genome and modulate viral mRNA translation. In addition, RNA structures can affect the efficiency of viral RNA synthesis and the activation of host innate immune response. Here, we investigated if RNA structures that modulate IAV replication processivity, so called template loops (t-loops), vary during the adaptation of pandemic and emerging IAV to humans. Using cell culture-based replication assays and in silico sequence analyses, we find that the sensitivity of the IAV H3N2 RNA polymerase to t-loops increased between isolates from 1968 and 2017, whereas the total free energy of t-loops in the IAV H3N2 genome was reduced. This reduction is particularly prominent in the PB1 gene. In H1N1 IAV, we find two separate reductions in t-loop free energy, one following the 1918 pandemic and one following the 2009 pandemic. No destabilization of t-loops is observed in the IBV genome, whereas analysis of SARS-CoV-2 isolates reveals destabilization of viral RNA structures. Overall, we propose that a loss of free energy in the RNA genome of emerging respiratory RNA viruses may contribute to the adaption of these viruses to the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Rigby
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 08544 New Jersey, United States
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
- Public Health England, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberly Sabsay
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 08544 New Jersey, United States
- Sigler Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States
| | - Karishma Bisht
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 08544 New Jersey, United States
| | - Dirk Eggink
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Hamid Jalal
- Public Health England, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Aartjan J.W. te Velthuis
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 08544 New Jersey, United States
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French H, Pitré E, Oade MS, Elshina E, Bisht K, King A, Bauer DL, te Velthuis AJ. Transient RNA structures cause aberrant influenza virus replication and innate immune activation. Sci Adv 2022; 8:eabp8655. [PMID: 36083899 PMCID: PMC9462681 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abp8655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
During infection, the influenza A virus RNA polymerase produces both full-length and aberrant RNA molecules, such as defective viral genomes (DVGs) and mini viral RNAs (mvRNAs). Subsequent innate immune activation involves the binding of host pathogen receptor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) to viral RNAs. However, it is not clear what factors determine which influenza A virus RNAs are RIG-I agonists. Here, we provide evidence that RNA structures, called template loops (t-loops), stall the viral RNA polymerase and contribute to innate immune activation by mvRNAs during influenza A virus infection. Impairment of replication by t-loops depends on the formation of an RNA duplex near the template entry and exit channels of the RNA polymerase, and this effect is enhanced by mutation of the template exit path from the RNA polymerase active site. Overall, these findings are suggestive of a mechanism involving polymerase stalling that links aberrant viral replication to the activation of the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollie French
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Emmanuelle Pitré
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Michael S. Oade
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Elizaveta Elshina
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Karishma Bisht
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Alannah King
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - David L.V. Bauer
- RNA Virus Replication Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Aartjan J.W. te Velthuis
- University of Cambridge, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
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Pitre E, te Velthuis AJ. Tinker, tailor, antiviral: RNA virus inhibition by induced recombination. Trends Biochem Sci 2022; 47:456-458. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Robb NC, te Velthuis AJ, Fodor E, Kapanidis AN. Single-Molecule Analysis of the Influenza Virus Replication Initiation Mechanism. Biophys J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.11.1370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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te Velthuis AJ, Kerssemakers JW, Lipfert J, Dekker NH. Quantitative Guidelines for Force Calibration Through Spectral Analysis of Magnetic Tweezers Data. Biophys J 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2010.12.2818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Bagowski CP, Bruins W, te Velthuis AJ. The nature of protein domain evolution: shaping the interaction network. Curr Genomics 2010; 11:368-76. [PMID: 21286315 PMCID: PMC2945003 DOI: 10.2174/138920210791616725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2010] [Revised: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 06/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The proteomes that make up the collection of proteins in contemporary organisms evolved through recombination and duplication of a limited set of domains. These protein domains are essentially the main components of globular proteins and are the most principal level at which protein function and protein interactions can be understood. An important aspect of domain evolution is their atomic structure and biochemical function, which are both specified by the information in the amino acid sequence. Changes in this information may bring about new folds, functions and protein architectures. With the present and still increasing wealth of sequences and annotation data brought about by genomics, new evolutionary relationships are constantly being revealed, unknown structures modeled and phylogenies inferred. Such investigations not only help predict the function of newly discovered proteins, but also assist in mapping unforeseen pathways of evolution and reveal crucial, co-evolving inter- and intra-molecular interactions. In turn this will help us describe how protein domains shaped cellular interaction networks and the dynamics with which they are regulated in the cell. Additionally, these studies can be used for the design of new and optimized protein domains for therapy. In this review, we aim to describe the basic concepts of protein domain evolution and illustrate recent developments in molecular evolution that have provided valuable new insights in the field of comparative genomics and protein interaction networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph P Bagowski
- German University Cairo, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, New Cairo City, Egypt
| | - Wouter Bruins
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 AL Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Aartjan J.W te Velthuis
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Laboratory, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Bionanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands
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te Velthuis AJ, Isogai T, Gerrits L, Bagowski CP. Insights into the molecular evolution of the PDZ/LIM family and identification of a novel conserved protein motif. PLoS One 2007; 2:e189. [PMID: 17285143 PMCID: PMC1781342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Accepted: 01/11/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The PDZ and LIM domain-containing protein family is encoded by a diverse group of genes whose phylogeny has currently not been analyzed. In mammals, ten genes are found that encode both a PDZ- and one or several LIM-domains. These genes are: ALP, RIL, Elfin (CLP36), Mystique, Enigma (LMP-1), Enigma homologue (ENH), ZASP (Cypher, Oracle), LMO7 and the two LIM domain kinases (LIMK1 and LIMK2). As conventional alignment and phylogenetic procedures of full-length sequences fell short of elucidating the evolutionary history of these genes, we started to analyze the PDZ and LIM domain sequences themselves. Using information from most sequenced eukaryotic lineages, our phylogenetic analysis is based on full-length cDNA-, EST-derived- and genomic- PDZ and LIM domain sequences of over 25 species, ranging from yeast to humans. Plant and protozoan homologs were not found. Our phylogenetic analysis identifies a number of domain duplication and rearrangement events, and shows a single convergent event during evolution of the PDZ/LIM family. Further, we describe the separation of the ALP and Enigma subfamilies in lower vertebrates and identify a novel consensus motif, which we call ‘ALP-like motif’ (AM). This motif is highly-conserved between ALP subfamily proteins of diverse organisms. We used here a combinatorial approach to define the relation of the PDZ and LIM domain encoding genes and to reconstruct their phylogeny. This analysis allowed us to classify the PDZ/LIM family and to suggest a meaningful model for the molecular evolution of the diverse gene architectures found in this multi-domain family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aartjan J.W. te Velthuis
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Tadamoto Isogai
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lieke Gerrits
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Christoph P. Bagowski
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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