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Miko S, Cope JR, Hlavsa MC, Ali IKM, Brown TW, Collins JP, Greeley RD, Kahler AM, Moore KO, Roundtree AV, Roy S, Sanders LL, Shah V, Stuteville HD, Mattioli MC. A Case of Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis Associated with Surfing at an Artificial Surf Venue: Environmental Investigation. ACS ES T Water 2023; 3:1126-1133. [PMID: 37213412 PMCID: PMC10193442 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri is a thermophilic ameba found in freshwater that causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) when it enters the nose and migrates to the brain. In September 2018, a 29-year-old man died of PAM after traveling to Texas. We conducted an epidemiologic and environmental investigation to identify the water exposure associated with this PAM case. The patient's most probable water exposure occurred while surfing in an artificial surf venue. The surf venue water was not filtered or recirculated; water disinfection and water quality testing were not documented. N. fowleri and thermophilic amebae were detected in recreational water and sediment samples throughout the facility. Codes and standards for treated recreational water venues open to the public could be developed to address these novel venues. Clinicians and public health officials should also consider novel recreational water venues as a potential exposure for this rare amebic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanna Miko
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Jennifer R. Cope
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Michele C. Hlavsa
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Ibne Karim M. Ali
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Travis W. Brown
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Jennifer P. Collins
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | | | - Amy M. Kahler
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Kathleen O. Moore
- Texas Department of State Health Services, P.O. Box 149347, Austin, TX 78714-9347
| | - Alexis V. Roundtree
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
- Chenega Enterprise System & Solutions, 609 Independence Parkway Suite 210, Chesapeake, VA 23320
| | - Shantanu Roy
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
| | - Lacey L. Sanders
- Waco-McLennan County Public Health District; 225 W Waco Dr, Waco, TX 76707
| | - Vaidehi Shah
- Waco-McLennan County Public Health District; 225 W Waco Dr, Waco, TX 76707
| | - Haylea D. Stuteville
- Texas Department of State Health Services, P.O. Box 149347, Austin, TX 78714-9347
| | - Mia C. Mattioli
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333
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Aluko SK, Ishrati SS, Walker DC, Mattioli MC, Kahler AM, Vanden Esschert KL, Hervey K, Rokisky J, Wikswo ME, Laco JP, Kurlekar S, Byrne A, Molinari NA, Gleason ME, Steward C, Hlavsa MC, Neises D. Outbreaks of Acute Gastrointestinal Illness Associated with a Splash Pad in a Wildlife Park — Kansas, June 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2022; 71:981-987. [PMID: 35925806 PMCID: PMC9368732 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7131a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kahler AM, Mattioli MC, da Silva AJ, Hill V. Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in produce irrigation and wash water using large-volume sampling techniques. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2021; 22:e00110. [PMID: 33681488 PMCID: PMC7930117 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2021.e00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent increase of reported cyclosporiasis outbreaks associated with fresh produce has highlighted the need for understanding environmental transmission of Cyclospora cayetanensis in agricultural settings and facilities. Conducting such environmental investigations necessitates robust sample collection and analytical methods to detect C. cayetanensis in water samples. This study evaluated three sample collection methods for recovery of C. cayetanensis oocysts from water samples during seeded recovery experiments. Two filtration-based methods, dead-end ultrafiltration (DEUF) and USEPA Method 1623.1, were evaluated for oocyst recovery from irrigation water. A non-filter-based method, continuous flow centrifugation (CFC), was evaluated separately for recovery from creek water and spent produce wash water. Median C. cayetanensis recovery efficiencies were 17% for DEUF and 16-22% for Method 1623.1. The DEUF method proved to be more robust than Method 1623.1, as the recovery efficiencies were less variable and the DEUF ultrafilters were capable of filtering larger volumes of high-turbidity water without clogging. Median C. cayetanensis recovery efficiencies for CFC were 28% for wash water and 63% for creek water, making it a viable option for processing water with high turbidity or organic matter. The data from this study demonstrate the capability of DEUF and CFC as filter-based and non-filter-based options, respectively, for the recovery of C. cayetanensis oocysts from environmental and agricultural waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Mia C Mattioli
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Alexandre J da Silva
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Vincent Hill
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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Abstract
The procedure described here provides instructions for detection of Cryptosporidium recovered from large-volume water samples. Water samples are collected by dead-end ultrafiltration in the field and ultrafilters are processed in a laboratory. Microbes recovered from the filters are further concentrated and subjected to Cryptosporidium isolation or nucleic acid extraction methods for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts or Cryptosporidium DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Cope JR, Kahler AM, Causey J, Williams JG, Kihlken J, Benjamin C, Ames AP, Forsman J, Zhu Y, Yoder JS, Seidel CJ, Hill VR. Response and remediation actions following the detection of Naegleria fowleri in two treated drinking water distribution systems, Louisiana, 2013-2014. J Water Health 2019; 17:777-787. [PMID: 31638028 PMCID: PMC7075671 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri causes the usually fatal disease primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), typically in people who have been swimming in warm, untreated freshwater. Recently, some cases in the United States were associated with exposure to treated drinking water. In 2013, a case of PAM was reported for the first time in association with the exposure to water from a US treated drinking water system colonized with culturable N. fowleri. This system and another were found to have multiple areas with undetectable disinfectant residual levels. In response, the water distribution systems were temporarily converted from chloramine disinfection to chlorine to inactivate N. fowleri and reduced biofilm in the distribution systems. Once >1.0 mg/L free chlorine residual was attained in all systems for 60 days, water testing was performed; N. fowleri was not detected in water samples after the chlorine conversion. This investigation highlights the importance of maintaining adequate residual disinfectant levels in drinking water distribution systems. Water distribution system managers should be knowledgeable about the ecology of their systems, understand potential water quality changes when water temperatures increase, and work to eliminate areas in which biofilm growth may be problematic and affect water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Cope
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA E-mail:
| | - Amy M Kahler
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA E-mail:
| | - Jake Causey
- Corona Environmental Consulting, 1001 Hingham St, Suite 102, Rockland, MA 02370, USA
| | - John G Williams
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Jennifer Kihlken
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Caryn Benjamin
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Amanda P Ames
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Johan Forsman
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Yuanda Zhu
- Louisiana Department of Health, 628 North 4th St, Baton Rouge, LA 70802, USA
| | - Jonathan S Yoder
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA E-mail:
| | - Chad J Seidel
- Corona Environmental Consulting, 1001 Hingham St, Suite 102, Rockland, MA 02370, USA
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Waterborne Disease Prevention Branch, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA E-mail:
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Graciaa DS, Cope JR, Roberts VA, Cikesh BL, Kahler AM, Vigar M, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Backer LC, Montgomery SP, Evan Secor W, Hill VR, Beach MJ, Fullerton KE, Yoder JS, Hlavsa MC. Outbreaks Associated with Untreated Recreational Water - United States, 2000-2014. Am J Transplant 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/ajt.15002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S. Graciaa
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine; Emory University School of Medicine; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Jennifer R. Cope
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Virginia A. Roberts
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Bryanna L. Cikesh
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education; Oak Ridge TN USA
| | - Amy M. Kahler
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Marissa Vigar
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | | | | | - Lorraine C. Backer
- Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects; National Center for Environmental Health, CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Susan P. Montgomery
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria; Center for Global Health; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - W. Evan Secor
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria; Center for Global Health; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Vincent R. Hill
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Michael J. Beach
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Kathleen E. Fullerton
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Jonathan S. Yoder
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Michele C. Hlavsa
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
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Hlavsa MC, Cikesh BL, Roberts VA, Kahler AM, Vigar M, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Roellig DM, Murphy JL, Xiao L, Yates KM, Kunz JM, Arduino MJ, Reddy SC, Fullerton KE, Cooley LA, Beach MJ, Hill VR, Yoder JS. Outbreaks associated with treated recreational water - United States, 2000-2014. Am J Transplant 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/ajt.14956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michele C. Hlavsa
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Bryanna L. Cikesh
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education; Oak Ridge TN USA
| | - Virginia A. Roberts
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Amy M. Kahler
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Marissa Vigar
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education; Oak Ridge TN USA
| | | | | | - Dawn M. Roellig
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Jennifer L. Murphy
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Lihua Xiao
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Kirsten M. Yates
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Jasen M. Kunz
- Division of Emergency and Environmental Health Services; National Center for Environmental Health; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Matthew J. Arduino
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Sujan C. Reddy
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Kathleen E. Fullerton
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Laura A. Cooley
- Division of Bacterial Diseases; National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Michael J. Beach
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Vincent R. Hill
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
| | - Jonathan S. Yoder
- Division of Foodborne; Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases; National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; CDC; Atlanta GA USA
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Graciaa DS, Cope JR, Roberts VA, Cikesh BL, Kahler AM, Vigar M, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Backer LC, Montgomery SP, Secor WE, Hill VR, Beach MJ, Fullerton KE, Yoder JS, Hlavsa MC. Outbreaks Associated with Untreated Recreational Water - United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018; 67:701-706. [PMID: 29953425 PMCID: PMC6023190 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6725a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks associated with untreated recreational water can be caused by pathogens, toxins, or chemicals in fresh water (e.g., lakes, rivers) or marine water (e.g., ocean). During 2000-2014, public health officials from 35 states and Guam voluntarily reported 140 untreated recreational water-associated outbreaks to CDC. These outbreaks resulted in at least 4,958 cases of disease and two deaths. Among the 95 outbreaks with a confirmed infectious etiology, enteric pathogens caused 80 (84%); 21 (22%) were caused by norovirus, 19 (20%) by Escherichia coli, 14 (15%) by Shigella, and 12 (13%) by Cryptosporidium. Investigations of these 95 outbreaks identified 3,125 cases; 2,704 (87%) were caused by enteric pathogens, including 1,459 (47%) by norovirus, 362 (12%) by Shigella, 314 (10%) by Cryptosporidium, and 155 (5%) by E. coli. Avian schistosomes were identified as the cause in 345 (11%) of the 3,125 cases. The two deaths were in persons affected by a single outbreak (two cases) caused by Naegleria fowleri. Public parks (50 [36%]) and beaches (45 [32%]) were the leading settings associated with the 140 outbreaks. Overall, the majority of outbreaks started during June-August (113 [81%]); 65 (58%) started in July. Swimmers and parents of young swimmers can take steps to minimize the risk for exposure to pathogens, toxins, and chemicals in untreated recreational water by heeding posted advisories closing the beach to swimming; not swimming in discolored, smelly, foamy, or scummy water; not swimming while sick with diarrhea; and limiting water entering the nose when swimming in warm freshwater.
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Hlavsa MC, Cikesh BL, Roberts VA, Kahler AM, Vigar M, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Roellig DM, Murphy JL, Xiao L, Yates KM, Kunz JM, Arduino MJ, Reddy SC, Fullerton KE, Cooley LA, Beach MJ, Hill VR, Yoder JS. Outbreaks Associated with Treated Recreational Water - United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018; 67:547-551. [PMID: 29771872 PMCID: PMC6048947 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6719a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks associated with exposure to treated recreational water can be caused by pathogens or chemicals in venues such as pools, hot tubs/spas, and interactive water play venues (i.e., water playgrounds). During 2000-2014, public health officials from 46 states and Puerto Rico reported 493 outbreaks associated with treated recreational water. These outbreaks resulted in at least 27,219 cases and eight deaths. Among the 363 outbreaks with a confirmed infectious etiology, 212 (58%) were caused by Cryptosporidium (which causes predominantly gastrointestinal illness), 57 (16%) by Legionella (which causes Legionnaires' disease, a severe pneumonia, and Pontiac fever, a milder illness with flu-like symptoms), and 47 (13%) by Pseudomonas (which causes folliculitis ["hot tub rash"] and otitis externa ["swimmers' ear"]). Investigations of the 363 outbreaks identified 24,453 cases; 21,766 (89%) were caused by Cryptosporidium, 920 (4%) by Pseudomonas, and 624 (3%) by Legionella. At least six of the eight reported deaths occurred in persons affected by outbreaks caused by Legionella. Hotels were the leading setting, associated with 157 (32%) of the 493 outbreaks. Overall, the outbreaks had a bimodal temporal distribution: 275 (56%) outbreaks started during June-August and 46 (9%) in March. Assessment of trends in the annual counts of outbreaks caused by Cryptosporidium, Legionella, or Pseudomonas indicate mixed progress in preventing transmission. Pathogens able to evade chlorine inactivation have become leading outbreak etiologies. The consequent outbreak and case counts and mortality underscore the utility of CDC's Model Aquatic Health Code (https://www.cdc.gov/mahc) to prevent outbreaks associated with treated recreational water.
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Sinyange N, Brunkard JM, Kapata N, Mazaba ML, Musonda KG, Hamoonga R, Kapina M, Kapaya F, Mutale L, Kateule E, Nanzaluka F, Zulu J, Musyani CL, Winstead AV, Davis WW, N’cho HS, Mulambya NL, Sakubita P, Chewe O, Nyimbili S, Onwuekwe EV, Adrien N, Blackstock AJ, Brown TW, Derado G, Garrett N, Kim S, Hubbard S, Kahler AM, Malambo W, Mintz E, Murphy J, Narra R, Rao GG, Riggs MA, Weber N, Yard E, Zyambo KD, Bakyaita N, Monze N, Malama K, Mulwanda J, Mukonka VM. Cholera Epidemic - Lusaka, Zambia, October 2017-May 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018; 67:556-559. [PMID: 29771877 PMCID: PMC6048949 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6719a5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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McClung RP, Roth DM, Vigar M, Roberts VA, Kahler AM, Cooley LA, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Fullerton KE, Yoder JS, Hill VR. Waterborne disease outbreaks associated with environmental and undetermined exposures to water - United States, 2013-2014. Am J Transplant 2018; 18:262-267. [PMID: 29267998 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.14607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R Paul McClung
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David M Roth
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Marissa Vigar
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Virginia A Roberts
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amy M Kahler
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Laura A Cooley
- Division of Bacterial Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Timothy J Wade
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kathleen E Fullerton
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jonathan S Yoder
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
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12
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McClung RP, Roth DM, Vigar M, Roberts VA, Kahler AM, Cooley LA, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Fullerton KE, Yoder JS, Hill VR. Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Associated With Environmental and Undetermined Exposures to Water - United States, 2013-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017; 66:1222-1225. [PMID: 29120997 PMCID: PMC5679586 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6644a4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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13
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Hlavsa MC, Roellig DM, Seabolt MH, Kahler AM, Murphy JL, McKitt TK, Geeter EF, Dawsey R, Davidson SL, Kim TN, Tucker TH, Iverson SA, Garrett B, Fowle N, Collins J, Epperson G, Zusy S, Weiss JR, Komatsu K, Rodriguez E, Patterson JG, Sunenshine R, Taylor B, Cibulskas K, Denny L, Omura K, Tsorin B, Fullerton KE, Xiao L. Using Molecular Characterization to Support Investigations of Aquatic Facility-Associated Outbreaks of Cryptosporidiosis - Alabama, Arizona, and Ohio, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017; 66:493-497. [PMID: 28520707 PMCID: PMC5657643 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6619a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Kahler AM, Cromeans TL, Metcalfe MG, Humphrey CD, Hill VR. Aggregation of Adenovirus 2 in Source Water and Impacts on Disinfection by Chlorine. Food Environ Virol 2016; 8:148-55. [PMID: 26910058 PMCID: PMC4864101 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9232-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
It is generally accepted that viral particles in source water are likely to be found as aggregates attached to other particles. For this reason, it is important to investigate the disinfection efficacy of chlorine on aggregated viruses. A method to produce adenovirus particle aggregation was developed for this study. Negative stain electron microscopy was used to measure aggregation before and after addition of virus particles to surface water at different pH and specific conductance levels. The impact of aggregation on the efficacy of chlorine disinfection was also examined. Disinfection experiments with human adenovirus 2 (HAdV2) in source water were conducted using 0.2 mg/L free chlorine at 5 °C. Aggregation of HAdV2 in source water (≥3 aggregated particles) remained higher at higher specific conductance and pH levels. However, aggregation was highly variable, with the percentage of particles present in aggregates ranging from 43 to 71 %. Upon addition into source water, the aggregation percentage dropped dramatically. On average, chlorination CT values (chlorine concentration in mg/L × time in min) for 3-log10 inactivation of aggregated HAdV2 were up to three times higher than those for dispersed HAdV2, indicating that aggregation reduced the disinfection rate. This information can be used by water utilities and regulators to guide decision making regarding disinfection of viruses in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail Stop D-66, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
| | - Theresa L Cromeans
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Atlanta, USA
| | - Maureen G Metcalfe
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail Stop D-66, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Charles D Humphrey
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail Stop D-66, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail Stop D-66, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
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15
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Kahler AM, Haley BJ, Chen A, Mull BJ, Tarr CL, Turnsek M, Katz LS, Humphrys MS, Derado G, Freeman N, Boncy J, Colwell RR, Huq A, Hill VR. Environmental surveillance for toxigenic Vibrio cholerae in surface waters of Haiti. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 92:118-25. [PMID: 25385860 PMCID: PMC4347365 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemic cholera was reported in Haiti in 2010, with no information available on the occurrence or geographic distribution of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae in Haitian waters. In a series of field visits conducted in Haiti between 2011 and 2013, water and plankton samples were collected at 19 sites. Vibrio cholerae was detected using culture, polymerase chain reaction, and direct viable count methods (DFA-DVC). Cholera toxin genes were detected by polymerase chain reaction in broth enrichments of samples collected in all visits except March 2012. Toxigenic V. cholerae was isolated from river water in 2011 and 2013. Whole genome sequencing revealed that these isolates were a match to the outbreak strain. The DFA-DVC tests were positive for V. cholerae O1 in plankton samples collected from multiple sites. Results of this survey show that toxigenic V. cholerae could be recovered from surface waters in Haiti more than 2 years after the onset of the epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Bradd J Haley
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Arlene Chen
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Bonnie J Mull
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Cheryl L Tarr
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Maryann Turnsek
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Lee S Katz
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Michael S Humphrys
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Gordana Derado
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Nicole Freeman
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Jacques Boncy
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Rita R Colwell
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Anwar Huq
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
| | - Vincent R Hill
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population, National Public Health Laboratory, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
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16
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Hlavsa MC, Roberts VA, Kahler AM, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Backer LC, Yoder JS. Recreational water-associated disease outbreaks--United States, 2009-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014; 63:6-10. [PMID: 24402466 PMCID: PMC5779330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recreational water-associated disease outbreaks result from exposure to infectious pathogens or chemical agents in treated recreational water venues (e.g., pools and hot tubs or spas) or untreated recreational water venues (e.g., lakes and oceans). For 2009-2010, the most recent years for which finalized data are available, public health officials from 28 states and Puerto Rico electronically reported 81 recreational water-associated disease outbreaks to CDC's Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) via the National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS). This report summarizes the characteristics of those outbreaks. Among the 57 outbreaks associated with treated recreational water, 24 (42%) were caused by Cryptosporidium. Among the 24 outbreaks associated with untreated recreational water, 11 (46%) were confirmed or suspected to have been caused by cyanobacterial toxins. In total, the 81 outbreaks resulted in at least 1,326 cases of illness and 62 hospitalizations; no deaths were reported. Laboratory and environmental data, in addition to epidemiologic data, can be used to direct and optimize the prevention and control of recreational water-associated disease outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele C. Hlavsa
- Div of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC,Corresponding author: Michele C. Hlavsa, , 404-718-4695
| | - Virginia A. Roberts
- Div of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC
| | - Amy M. Kahler
- Div of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC
| | | | | | - Lorraine C. Backer
- Div of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC
| | - Jonathan S. Yoder
- Div of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC
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17
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Wong K, Mukherjee B, Kahler AM, Zepp R, Molina M. Influence of inorganic ions on aggregation and adsorption behaviors of human adenovirus. Environ Sci Technol 2012; 46:11145-11153. [PMID: 22950445 DOI: 10.1021/es3028764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the influence of inorganic ions on the aggregation and deposition (adsorption) behavior of human adenovirus (HAdV). Experiments were conducted to determine the surface charge and size of HAdV and viral adsorption capacity of sand in different salt conditions. The interfacial potential energy was calculated using extended Derjaguin and Landau, Verwey and Overbeek (XDLVO) and steric hindrance theories to interpret the experimental results. Results showed that different compositions of inorganic ions have minimal effect on varying the iso-electric point pH (pH(iep)) of HAdV (ranging from 3.5 to 4.0). Divalent cations neutralized/shielded virus surface charge much more effectively than monovalent cations at pH above pH(iep). Consequently, at neutral pH the presence of divalent cations enhanced the aggregation of HAdV as well as its adsorption to sand. Aggregation and adsorption behaviors generally agreed with XDLVO theory; however, in the case of minimal electrostatic repulsion, steric force by virus' fibers can increase the energy barrier and distance of secondary minimum, resulting in limited aggregation and deposition. Overall, our results indicated that subsurface water with low hardness residing in sandy soils may have a higher potential of being contaminated by HAdV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin Wong
- Ecosystems Research Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 960 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
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18
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Wong K, Mukherjee B, Kahler AM, Zepp R, Molina M. Influence of inorganic ions on aggregation and adsorption behaviors of human adenovirus. Environ Sci Technol 2012; 53:12151-12152. [PMID: 22950445 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the influence of inorganic ions on the aggregation and deposition (adsorption) behavior of human adenovirus (HAdV). Experiments were conducted to determine the surface charge and size of HAdV and viral adsorption capacity of sand in different salt conditions. The interfacial potential energy was calculated using extended Derjaguin and Landau, Verwey and Overbeek (XDLVO) and steric hindrance theories to interpret the experimental results. Results showed that different compositions of inorganic ions have minimal effect on varying the iso-electric point pH (pH(iep)) of HAdV (ranging from 3.5 to 4.0). Divalent cations neutralized/shielded virus surface charge much more effectively than monovalent cations at pH above pH(iep). Consequently, at neutral pH the presence of divalent cations enhanced the aggregation of HAdV as well as its adsorption to sand. Aggregation and adsorption behaviors generally agreed with XDLVO theory; however, in the case of minimal electrostatic repulsion, steric force by virus' fibers can increase the energy barrier and distance of secondary minimum, resulting in limited aggregation and deposition. Overall, our results indicated that subsurface water with low hardness residing in sandy soils may have a higher potential of being contaminated by HAdV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin Wong
- Ecosystems Research Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 960 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
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19
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Yoder JS, Straif-Bourgeois S, Roy SL, Moore TA, Visvesvara GS, Ratard RC, Hill VR, Wilson JD, Linscott AJ, Crager R, Kozak NA, Sriram R, Narayanan J, Mull B, Kahler AM, Schneeberger C, da Silva AJ, Poudel M, Baumgarten KL, Xiao L, Beach MJ. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis deaths associated with sinus irrigation using contaminated tap water. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55:e79-85. [PMID: 22919000 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cis626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Naegleria fowleri is a climate-sensitive, thermophilic ameba found in the environment, including warm, freshwater lakes and rivers. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is almost universally fatal, occurs when N. fowleri-containing water enters the nose, typically during swimming, and N. fowleri migrates to the brain via the olfactory nerve. In 2011, 2 adults died in Louisiana hospitals of infectious meningoencephalitis after brief illnesses. METHODS Clinical and environmental testing and case investigations were initiated to determine the cause of death and to identify the exposures. RESULTS Both patients had diagnoses of PAM. Their only reported water exposures were tap water used for household activities, including regular sinus irrigation with neti pots. Water samples, tap swab samples, and neti pots were collected from both households and tested; N. fowleri were identified in water samples from both homes. CONCLUSIONS These are the first reported PAM cases in the United States associated with the presence of N. fowleri in household plumbing served by treated municipal water supplies and the first reports of PAM potentially associated with the use of a nasal irrigation device. These cases occurred in the context of an expanding geographic range for PAM beyond southern tier states with recent case reports from Minnesota, Kansas, and Virginia. These infections introduce an additional consideration for physicians recommending nasal irrigation and demonstrate the importance of using appropriate water (distilled, boiled, filtered) for nasal irrigation. Furthermore, the changing epidemiology of PAM highlights the importance of raising awareness about this disease among physicians treating persons showing meningitislike symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan S Yoder
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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20
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Hill VR, Cohen N, Kahler AM, Jones JL, Bopp CA, Marano N, Tarr CL, Garrett NM, Boncy J, Henry A, Gómez GA, Wellman M, Curtis M, Freeman MM, Turnsek M, Benner RA, Dahourou G, Espey D, DePaola A, Tappero JW, Handzel T, Tauxe RV. Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 in water and seafood, Haiti. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 17:2147-50. [PMID: 22099121 PMCID: PMC3310574 DOI: 10.3201/eid1711.110748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During the 2010 cholera outbreak in Haiti, water and seafood samples were collected to detect Vibrio cholerae. The outbreak strain of toxigenic V. cholerae O1 serotype Ogawa was isolated from freshwater and seafood samples. The cholera toxin gene was detected in harbor water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent R Hill
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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21
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Hlavsa MC, Roberts VA, Anderson AR, Hill VR, Kahler AM, Orr M, Garrison LE, Hicks LA, Newton A, Hilborn ED, Wade TJ, Beach MJ, Yoder JS. Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks and other health events associated with recreational water --- United States, 2007--2008. MMWR Surveill Summ 2011; 60:1-32. [PMID: 21937976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
PROBLEM/CONDITION Since 1978, CDC, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists have collaborated on the Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) for collecting and reporting data on waterborne disease outbreaks associated with recreational water. This surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and health effects of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. In addition, data are collected on other select recreational water--associated health events, including pool chemical--associated health events and single cases of Vibrio wound infection and primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). REPORTING PERIOD Data presented summarize recreational water--associated outbreaks and other health events that occurred during January 2007--December 2008. Previously unreported data on outbreaks that have occurred since 1978 also are presented. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM The WBDOSS database includes data on outbreaks associated with recreational water, drinking water, water not intended for drinking (excluding recreational water), and water use of unknown intent. Public health agencies in the states, the District of Columbia, U.S. territories, and Freely Associated States are primarily responsible for detecting and investigating waterborne disease outbreaks and voluntarily reporting them to CDC using a standard form. Only data on outbreaks associated with recreational water are summarized in this report. Data on other recreational water--associated health events reported to CDC, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) also are summarized. RESULTS A total of 134 recreational water--associated outbreaks were reported by 38 states and Puerto Rico for 2007--2008. These outbreaks resulted in at least 13,966 cases. The median outbreak size was 11 cases (range: 2--5,697 cases). A total of 116 (86.6%) outbreaks were associated with treated recreational water (e.g., pools and interactive fountains) and resulted in 13,480 (96.5%) cases. Of the 134 outbreaks, 81 (60.4%) were outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI); 24 (17.9%) were outbreaks of dermatologic illnesses, conditions, or symptoms; and 17 (12.7%) were outbreaks of acute respiratory illness. Outbreaks of AGI resulted in 12,477 (89.3%) cases. The etiology was laboratory-confirmed for 105 (78.4%) of the 134 outbreaks. Of the 105 outbreaks with a laboratory-confirmed etiology, 68 (64.8%) were caused by parasites, 22 (21.0%) by bacteria, five (4.8%) by viruses, nine (8.6%) by chemicals or toxins, and one (1.0%) by multiple etiology types. Cryptosporidium was confirmed as the etiologic agent of 60 (44.8%) of 134 outbreaks, resulting in 12,154 (87.0%) cases; 58 (96.7%) of these outbreaks, resulting in a total of 12,137 (99.9%) cases, were associated with treated recreational water. A total of 32 pool chemical--associated health events that occurred in a public or residential setting were reported to WBDOSS by Maryland and Michigan. These events resulted in 48 cases of illness or injury; 26 (81.3%) events could be attributed at least partially to chemical handling errors (e.g., mixing incompatible chemicals). ATSDR's Hazardous Substance Emergency Events Surveillance System received 92 reports of hazardous substance events that occurred at aquatic facilities. More than half of these events (55 [59.8%]) involved injured persons; the most frequently reported primary contributing factor was human error. Estimates based on CPSC's National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) data indicate that 4,574 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2,703--6,446) emergency department (ED) visits attributable to pool chemical--associated injuries occurred in 2008; the most frequent diagnosis was poisoning (1,784 ED visits [95% CI: 585--2,984]). NEISS data indicate that pool chemical--associated health events occur frequently in residential settings. A total of 236 Vibrio wound infections were reported to be associated with recreational water exposure; 36 (48.6%) of the 74 hospitalized vibriosis patients and six (66.7%) of the nine vibriosis patients who died had V. vulnificus infections. Eight fatal cases of PAM occurred after exposure to warm untreated freshwater. INTERPRETATIONS The 134 recreational water--associated outbreaks reported for 2007--2008 represent a substantial increase over the 78 outbreaks reported for 2005--2006 and the largest number of outbreaks ever reported to WBDOSS for a 2-year period. Outbreaks, especially the largest ones, were most frequently associated with treated recreational water and characterized by AGI. Cryptosporidium remains the leading etiologic agent. Pool chemical--associated health events occur frequently but are preventable. Data on other select recreational water--associated health events further elucidate the epidemiology of U.S. waterborne disease by highlighting less frequently implicated types of recreational water (e.g., oceans) and detected types of recreational water--associated illness (i.e., not AGI). PUBLIC HEALTH ACTIONS CDC uses waterborne disease outbreak surveillance data to 1) identify the types of etiologic agents, recreational water venues, and settings associated with waterborne disease outbreaks; 2) evaluate the adequacy of regulations and public awareness activities to promote healthy and safe swimming; and 3) establish public health priorities to improve prevention efforts, guidelines, and regulations at the local, state, and federal levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele C Hlavsa
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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22
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Kahler AM, Cromeans TL, Roberts JM, Hill VR. Source water quality effects on monochloramine inactivation of adenovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus, and murine norovirus. Water Res 2011; 45:1745-1751. [PMID: 21145573 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for more information regarding monochloramine disinfection efficacy for viruses in water. In this study, monochloramine disinfection efficacy was investigated for coxsackievirus B5 (CVB5), echovirus 11 (E11), murine norovirus (MNV), and human adenovirus 2 (HAdV2) in one untreated ground water and two partially treated surface waters. Duplicate disinfection experiments were completed at pH 7 and 8 in source water at concentrations of 1 and 3 mg/L monochloramine at 5 and 15 °C. The Efficiency Factor Hom (EFH) model was used to calculate CT values (mg-min/L) required to achieve 2-, 3-, and 4-log(10) reductions in viral titers. In all water types, monochloramine disinfection was most effective for MNV, with 3-log(10) CT values at 5 °C ranging from 27 to 110. Monochloramine disinfection was least effective for HAdV2 and E11, depending on water type, with 3-log(10) CT values at 5 °C ranging from 1200 to 3300 and 810 to 2300, respectively. Overall, disinfection proceeded faster at 15 °C and pH 7 for all water types. Inactivation of the study viruses was significantly different between water types, but there was no indication that overall disinfection efficacy was enhanced or inhibited in any one water type. CT values for HAdV2 in two types of source water exceeded federal CT value recommendations in the US. The results of this study demonstrate that water quality impacts the inactivation of viruses and should be considered when developing chloramination plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Mail Stop D-66, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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23
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Hill VR, Polaczyk AL, Kahler AM, Cromeans TL, Hahn D, Amburgey JE. Comparison of hollow-fiber ultrafiltration to the USEPA VIRADEL technique and USEPA method 1623. J Environ Qual 2009; 38:822-825. [PMID: 19244504 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2008.0152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Hollow-fiber ultrafiltration (UF) is a technique that is increasingly viewed as an effective alternative for simultaneously recovering diverse microbes (e.g., viruses, bacteria, parasites) from large volumes of drinking water. The USEPA has organism-specific methods, including Method 1623 for Cryptosporidium and Giardia and the virus adsorption-elution (VIRADEL) technique using 1MDS electropositive filters. In this study, we directly compare the performance of a previously published UF method to that of the USEPA Method 1623 (for recovering Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia intestinalis) and the 1MDS VIRADEL method (for bacteriophages and echovirus) using 100-L dechlorinated tap water samples. The UF method produced significantly higher recoveries of C. parvum versus Method 1623 (83% mean recovery for UF versus 46% mean recovery for Method 1623), while recoveries for G. intestinalis were similar for both methods. Results of the virus method comparison showed the UF method (including secondary concentration using microconcentrators) to be very effective for the recovery of echovirus 1, bacteriophage MS2, and bacteriophage phi X174, with mean recovery efficiencies of 58, 100, and 77%, respectively. The VIRADEL technique (including secondary concentration by organic flocculation) recovered significantly less echovirus 1, and the bacteriophages could not be quantified by the method due to phage inactivation and/or assay inhibition. The results of this study demonstrate that the UF technique can be as effective, or more effective, than established USEPA methods for recovery of viruses and protozoan parasites from 100-L tap water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent R Hill
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases, 4770 Buford Hwy, Mailstop F-36, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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24
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Hill VR, Kahler AM, Jothikumar N, Johnson TB, Hahn D, Cromeans TL. Multistate evaluation of an ultrafiltration-based procedure for simultaneous recovery of enteric microbes in 100-liter tap water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:4218-25. [PMID: 17483281 PMCID: PMC1932788 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02713-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrafiltration (UF) is increasingly being recognized as a potentially effective procedure for concentrating and recovering microbes from large volumes of water and treated wastewater. Because of their very small pore sizes, UF membranes are capable of simultaneously concentrating viruses, bacteria, and parasites based on size exclusion. In this study, a UF-based water sampling procedure was used to simultaneously recover representatives of these three microbial classes seeded into 100-liter samples of tap water collected from eight cities covering six hydrologic areas of the United States. The UF-based procedure included hollow-fiber UF as the primary step for concentrating microbes and then used membrane filtration for bacterial culture assays, immunomagnetic separation for parasite recovery and quantification, and centrifugal UF for secondary concentration of viruses. Water samples were tested for nine water quality parameters to investigate whether water quality data correlated with measured recovery efficiencies and molecular detection levels. Average total method recovery efficiencies were 71, 97, 120, 110, and 91% for phiX174 bacteriophage, MS2 bacteriophage, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens spores, and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, respectively. Real-time PCR and reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) for seeded microbes and controls indicated that tap water quality could affect the analytical performance of molecular amplification assays, although no specific water quality parameter was found to correlate with reduced PCR or RT-PCR performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent R Hill
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30341-3724, USA.
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25
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Kahler AM, Thurston-Enriquez JA. Human pathogenic microsporidia detection in agricultural samples: method development and assessment. Parasitol Res 2006; 100:529-38. [PMID: 17058113 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0300-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Accepted: 07/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A detection method was developed and assessed for the sensitive recovery of microsporidia from livestock fecal and manure-impacted environmental samples. Sensitive recovery of microsporidia was achieved when samples were subjected to 1) purification by sucrose floatation, 2) DNA extraction using the Qiagen QIAamp DNA Stool Mini Kit, 3) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis using generic primers for microsporidia, and 4) DNA sequence analysis to identify which microsporidia were present in each sample. Livestock fecal and wastewater samples were inoculated with 1,000 and 100 Encephalitozoon intestinalis spores/g or ml of feces or wastewater. For cattle wastewater, ten of ten replicates were positive by PCR at concentrations of 1,000 spores/ml, and two of ten replicates were positive at concentrations of 100 spores/ml. For swine wastewater, ten of ten replicates were positive at concentrations of 1,000 spores/ml, and four of ten replicates were positive at concentrations of 100 spores/ml. For cattle feces, three of ten replicates were positive at the concentration of 1,000 spores/g. Several environmental samples were screened using this method, with two of 34 samples positive for human pathogenic microsporidia. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Encephalitozoon cuniculi detection in swine feces and wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Kahler
- USDA-ARS, 138 Keim Hall, UNL East Campus, Lincoln, NE 68583-0934, USA.
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