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Schwensohn C, Nsubuga J, Cronquist L, Jose G, Mastel L, McCullough L, Smith L, Powell M, Booth H, Allen K, Classon A, Gieraltowski L. A Multiple-Serotype Outbreak of Salmonella Infections Linked to Kratom, United States, 2017-2018. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2022; 19:648-653. [PMID: 35917511 PMCID: PMC10961741 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2022.0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2018, we investigated a large national multiple-serotype Salmonella outbreak linked to contaminated kratom, a raw minimally processed botanical substance. Kratom is a plant consumed for its stimulant effects and as an opioid substitute. A case was defined as a laboratory-confirmed Salmonella infection with one of the outbreak strains (serotypes I 4,[5],12:b:-, Heidelberg, Javiana, Okatie, Weltevreden, or Thompson) with illnesses onset during January 11, 2017-May 8, 2018. State and local officials collected detailed information on product consumption and sources. Suspected products were tested for Salmonella and traceback was conducted to determine product distribution chains and suppliers. We identified 199 cases from 41 states; 54 patients were hospitalized. Early interviews indicated kratom was an exposure of interest. Seventy-six (74%) of 103 people interviewed reported consuming kratom in pills, powders, or teas. Multiple serotypes of Salmonella were detected in samples of kratom collected from the homes of the patients and from retail locations. Several companies issued recalls of kratom products due to Salmonella contamination. To the authors' knowledge, this investigation is the first to establish kratom as a vehicle for Salmonella infection. Our findings underscore the serious safety concerns regarding minimally processed botanical substances intended for oral consumption and the challenges in investigating outbreaks linked to novel outbreak vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin Schwensohn
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Johnson Nsubuga
- Coordinated Outbreak Response and Evaluation Network, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Laura Cronquist
- North Dakota Department of Health, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
| | - Gino Jose
- North Dakota Department of Health, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
| | - Laura Mastel
- North Dakota Department of Health, Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
| | | | - Lori Smith
- Utah Department of Health, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | | | - Hillary Booth
- Oregon Public Health Division, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Krisandra Allen
- Washington State Department of Health, Shoreline, Washington, USA
| | - Andrew Classon
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Laura Gieraltowski
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Medalla F, Payne DC, Sundararaman P, Birhane M, Classon A, Caidi H, Folster J, Friedman CR, Watkins LF. 132. Emergence and Spread of Multidrug-resistant salmonella Serotype Infantis Infections in the United States, 2003–2018. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020. [PMCID: PMC7776462 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa439.442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Infantis re-emerged as a leading Salmonella serotype when a multidrug-resistant (MDR) strain with a rare extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) blaCTX-M-65 gene emerged among returned travelers from Peru in 2012 and then spread domestically. This strain has been isolated from chickens at slaughter and retail, and humans in outbreaks traced to chicken. We reviewed national surveillance data to determine incidence trends and antibiotic resistance among Infantis infections.
Methods
We reviewed data from 2003–2018 from the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network to determine the incidence and epidemiology of infections in 10 sites under surveillance; PulseNet to determine pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns; and National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) to determine antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) results and resistance genes of isolates identified by whole genome sequencing (WGS). We defined MDR Infantis as having ceftriaxone resistance by AST and either the blaCTX-M-65 gene or one of 18 PFGE patterns linked to that gene by WGS.
Results
The 2,154 patients with Infantis infection had a median age of 36 years and 57% were female; 86% had isolates from stool, 9% from urine, and 3% from blood. Only 10% reported foreign travel and 27% were hospitalized. The incidence of infections began increasing in 2010 and by 2017–2018 was 2-fold higher than the average during 2003–2009. During 2003–2018, 856 (88%) of 970 NARMS isolates had PFGE or WGS data; 48 isolates were MDR Infantis, and in addition to ceftriaxone and ampicillin resistance (by definition), all 48 were resistant to 3 or more antibiotic classes, 94% had decreased susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, and 67% were resistant to cotrimoxazole. During 2012–2016, 2% of isolates were MDR Infantis; this increased to 17% during 2017–2018 (Figure).
Conclusion
During the past decade, the incidence of Infantis infections markedly increased. This was likely driven by the emergence of an ESBL-producing strain that was initially associated with travel, and is now mostly domestically acquired and associated with consuming chicken. MDR Infantis now accounts for 1 in 5 Infantis infections. Public health strategies to reduce Salmonella contamination of chicken could help prevent these infections.
Disclosures
All Authors: No reported disclosures
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicita Medalla
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Daniel C Payne
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Preethi Sundararaman
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Meseret Birhane
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Andrew Classon
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Hayat Caidi
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jason Folster
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Louise Francois Watkins
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Nichols M, Stevenson L, Koski L, Basler C, Wise M, Whitlock L, Francois Watkins L, Friedman CR, Chen J, Tagg K, Joseph L, Caidi H, Patel K, Tolar B, Hise K, Classon A, Ceric O, Reimschuessel R, Williams IT. Detecting national human enteric disease outbreaks linked to animal contact in the United States of America. REV SCI TECH OIE 2020; 39:471-480. [PMID: 33046928 DOI: 10.20506/rst.39.2.3098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Enteric pathogens, such as non-typhoidal Salmonella, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli, can reside in the intestinal tract of many animals, including livestock, companion animals, small mammals and reptiles. Often, these animals can appear healthy; nonetheless, humans can become infected after direct or indirect contact, resulting in a substantial illness burden. An estimated 14% of the 3.2 million illnesses that occur in the United States of America (USA) each year from such enteric pathogens are attributable to animal contact. Surveillance for enteric pathogens in the USA includes the compilation and interpretation of both laboratory and epidemiologic data. However, the authors feel that a collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary - or One Health - approach is needed for data collection and analysis, at every level. In addition, they suggest that the future of enteric illness surveillance lies in the development of improved technologies for pathogen detection and characterisation, such as genomic sequencing and metagenomics. In particular, using whole-genome sequencing to compare genetic sequences of enteric pathogens from humans, food, animals and the environment, can help to predict antimicrobial resistance among these pathogens, determine their genetic relatedness and identify outbreaks linked to a common source. In this paper, the authors describe three recent, multi-state human enteric illness outbreaks linked to animal contact in the USA and discuss how integrated disease surveillance was essential to outbreak detection and response. Additional datasharing between public health and animal health laboratories and epidemiologists at the local, national, regional and international level may help to improve surveillance for emerging animal and human health threats and lead to new opportunities for prevention.
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Venkat H, Matthews J, Lumadao P, Caballero B, Collins J, Fowle N, Kellis M, Tewell M, White S, Hassan R, Classon A, Joung Y, Komatsu K, Weiss J, Zusy S, Sunenshine R. Salmonella enterica Serotype Javiana Infections Linked to a Seafood Restaurant in Maricopa County, Arizona, 2016. J Food Prot 2018; 81:1283-1292. [PMID: 29985066 PMCID: PMC6309180 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
On 10 August 2016, the Maricopa County Department of Public Health identified culture-confirmed Salmonella enterica serotype Javiana isolates from two persons who reported eating at a seafood restaurant; seven additional cases were reported by 15 August. We investigated to identify a source and prevent further illness. We interviewed persons with laboratory-reported Salmonella Javiana infection. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and whole genome sequencing of isolates were performed. A case was defined as diarrheal illness in a person during July to September 2016; confirmed cases had Salmonella Javiana isolate yielding outbreak-related PFGE patterns; probable cases had diarrheal illness and an epidemiologic link to a confirmed case. Case finding was performed (passive surveillance and identification of ill meal companions). A case-control study assessed risk factors for Salmonella Javiana infection among restaurant diners; control subjects were chosen among meal companions. No restaurant workers reported illness. Foods were reportedly cooked according to the Food Code. Food and environmental samples were collected and cultured; Salmonella Javiana with an indistinguishable PFGE pattern was isolated from portioned repackaged raw shrimp, halibut, and a freezer door handle. We identified 50 Salmonella Javiana cases (40 confirmed and 10 probable); illness onset range was from 22 July to 17 September 2016. Isolates from 40 patients had highly related PFGE patterns. Thirty-three (73%) of 45 patients interviewed reported eating at the restaurant. Among 21 case patients and 31 control subjects, unfried cooked shrimp was associated with illness (odds ratio, 6.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.8 to 24.9; P = 0.004). Among restaurant diners, laboratory and case-control evidence indicated shrimp as the possible outbreak source; poor thermal inactivation of Salmonella on shrimp is theorized as a possible cause. Cross-contamination might have prolonged this outbreak; however, the source was not identified and highlights limitations that can arise during these types of investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Venkat
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Epidemic Intelligence Service Program, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333.,2 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, 4041 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85012.,3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - James Matthews
- 2 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, 4041 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85012
| | - Paolo Lumadao
- 4 Maricopa County Environmental Services, 1001 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85004
| | - Blanca Caballero
- 3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Jennifer Collins
- 2 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, 4041 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85012
| | - Nicole Fowle
- 2 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, 4041 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85012
| | - Marilee Kellis
- 3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Mackenzie Tewell
- 3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Stacy White
- 5 Arizona State Public Health Laboratory, 250 North 17th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Rashida Hassan
- 6 CDC Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333; and
| | - Andrew Classon
- 6 CDC Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333; and
| | - Yoo Joung
- 6 CDC Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333; and
| | - Kenneth Komatsu
- 3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Joli Weiss
- 3 Arizona Department of Health Services, 150 North 18th Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85007
| | - Scott Zusy
- 4 Maricopa County Environmental Services, 1001 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85004
| | - Rebecca Sunenshine
- 2 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, 4041 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85012.,7 CDC Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response, Career Epidemiology Field Officer Program, Division of State and Local Readiness, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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Krishnasamy V, Stevenson L, Koski L, Kellis M, Schroeder B, Sundararajan M, Ladd-Wilson S, Sampsel A, Mannell M, Classon A, Wagner D, Hise K, Carleton H, Trees E, Schlater L, Lantz K, Nichols M. Notes from the Field: Investigation of an Outbreak of Salmonella Paratyphi B Variant L(+) tartrate + (Java) Associated with Ball Python Exposure - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018; 67:562-563. [PMID: 29771878 PMCID: PMC6048943 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6719a7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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