Elimination of oxacillin, its toxicity and antibacterial activity by using ionizing radiation

The chemical changes caused by electron beam and γ irradiations and the biochemical characteristics of degradation products of a frequently used antibiotic oxacillin were investigated and compared with those of cloxacillin by applying pulse radiolysis, chemical and biochemical oxygen demand, total organic carbon content, oxygen uptake rate, toxicity and antibacterial activity measurements. Oxacillin was found to be non-toxic, but poorly biodegradable by the mixed microbial population of the activated sludge of a wastewater treatment plant. Therefore, it can significantly contribute to the spread of β-lactam antibiotic resistant bacteria. However, the products formed by γ-irradiation were more easily biodegradable as they were utilized as nutrient source by the microbes of the activated sludge and the products did not show antibacterial activity. During irradiation treatment of aerated aqueous solutions mainly hydroxyl radicals induce the elimination of antimicrobial activity by making alterations at the bicyclic β-lactam part of these antibiotics. Since the β-lactam part is the same in oxacillin and cloxacillin, the biochemical characteristics of products of the two antibiotics are similar. The attack of hydrated electron takes place on the carbonyl groups. When the irradiation is made under anoxic conditions these reactions may also contribute considerably to alterations at the β-lactam part and thereby to the loss of antibacterial activity.

Radiolysis of sulfonamide antibiotics in aqueous solution: Degradation efficiency and assessment of antibacterial activity, toxicity and biodegradability of products

Numerous studies have been published on the radiolysis of sulfonamide antibiotic solutions but little effort has been made to monitor the biological properties of degradation products. A complex approach should also clarify the changes in antibacterial activity and biodegradability, besides the usual screening of toxicity. To fill this gap, the ionizing radiation induced degradation of four sulfonamide antibiotics was investigated in dilute aqueous solutions, with emphasis on the biological assessment of decomposition products. Complete removal of sulfonamides was achieved by a low absorbed dose (1.5kGy). 2-2.5kGy dose was needed to transform the persistent initial molecules to substances biodegradable in both river water and activated sludge. The ratio of the biological and chemical oxygen demand increased from <0.21 to at least 0.59, but values as high as 0.80 were also measured. It was demonstrated that antibacterial activity is due to the initial molecules, as it disappeared when the sulfamethoxazole concentration decreased below the minimal inhibitory concentration (30 μM). This means that the products have no antibacterial activity. Toxicity testing performed on test organisms from three different trophic levels and activated sludge evidenced that the toxicity depends both on the test organism and on the sulfonamide used. The degradation of initial molecules is not always enough to eliminate the environmental risk due to the toxic products formed e.g. inhibitory effects to Vibrio fischeri increased by 34% at 2.5kGy. For this reason, complex biological assessment of treated solutions has to play an important role in development and optimization of advanced treatment techniques.