NF1 regulates mesenchymal glioblastoma plasticity and aggressiveness through the AP-1 transcription factor FOSL1

The molecular basis underlying glioblastoma (GBM) heterogeneity and plasticity is not fully understood. Using transcriptomic data of human patient-derived brain tumor stem cell lines (BTSCs), classified based on GBM-intrinsic signatures, we identify the AP-1 transcription factor FOSL1 as a key regulator of the mesenchymal (MES) subtype. We provide a mechanistic basis to the role of the neurofibromatosis type 1 gene (NF1), a negative regulator of the RAS/MAPK pathway, in GBM mesenchymal transformation through the modulation of FOSL1 expression. Depletion of FOSL1 in NF1-mutant human BTSCs and Kras-mutant mouse neural stem cells results in loss of the mesenchymal gene signature and reduction in stem cell properties and in vivo tumorigenic potential. Our data demonstrate that FOSL1 controls GBM plasticity and aggressiveness in response to NF1 alterations.

MGMT genomic rearrangements contribute to chemotherapy resistance in gliomas

Temozolomide (TMZ) is an oral alkylating agent used for the treatment of glioblastoma and is now becoming a chemotherapeutic option in patients diagnosed with high-risk low-grade gliomas. The O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is responsible for the direct repair of the main TMZ-induced toxic DNA adduct, the O6-Methylguanine lesion. MGMT promoter hypermethylation is currently the only known biomarker for TMZ response in glioblastoma patients. Here we show that a subset of recurrent gliomas carries MGMT genomic rearrangements that lead to MGMT overexpression, independently from changes in its promoter methylation. By leveraging the CRISPR/Cas9 technology we generated some of these MGMT rearrangements in glioma cells and demonstrated that the MGMT genomic rearrangements contribute to TMZ resistance both in vitro and in vivo. Lastly, we showed that such fusions can be detected in tumor-derived exosomes and could potentially represent an early detection marker of tumor recurrence in a subset of patients treated with TMZ.

A kinase-deficient NTRK2 splice variant predominates in glioma and amplifies several oncogenic signaling pathways

Independent scientific achievements have led to the discovery of aberrant splicing patterns in oncogenesis, while more recent advances have uncovered novel gene fusions involving neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinases (NTRKs) in gliomas. The exploration of NTRK splice variants in normal and neoplastic brain provides an intersection of these two rapidly evolving fields. Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), encoded NTRK2, is known for critical roles in neuronal survival, differentiation, molecular properties associated with memory, and exhibits intricate splicing patterns and post-translational modifications. Here, we show a role for a truncated NTRK2 splice variant, TrkB.T1, in human glioma. TrkB.T1 enhances PDGF-driven gliomas in vivo, augments PDGF-induced Akt and STAT3 signaling in vitro, while next generation sequencing broadly implicates TrkB.T1 in the PI3K signaling cascades in a ligand-independent fashion. These TrkB.T1 findings highlight the importance of expanding upon whole gene and gene fusion analyses to include splice variants in basic and translational neuro-oncology research.

Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), encoded by the neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinase 2 (NTRK2) gene, exhibits intricate splicing patterns and post-translational modifications. Here, the authors perform whole gene and transcript-level analyses and report the TrkB.T1 splice variant enhances PDGF-driven gliomas in vivo and augments PI3K signaling cascades in vitro.

Somatic genome editing with the RCAS-TVA-CRISPR-Cas9 system for precision tumor modeling

To accurately recapitulate the heterogeneity of human diseases, animal models require to recreate multiple complex genetic alterations. Here, we combine the RCAS-TVA system with the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing tools for precise modeling of human tumors. We show that somatic deletion in neural stem cells of a variety of known tumor suppressor genes (Trp53, Cdkn2a, and Pten) leads to high-grade glioma formation. Moreover, by simultaneous delivery of pairs of guide RNAs we generate different gene fusions with oncogenic potential, either by chromosomal deletion (Bcan-Ntrk1) or by chromosomal translocation (Myb-Qk). Lastly, using homology-directed-repair, we also produce tumors carrying the homologous mutation to human BRAF V600E, frequently identified in a variety of tumors, including different types of gliomas. In summary, we have developed an extremely versatile mouse model for in vivo somatic genome editing, that will elicit the generation of more accurate cancer models particularly appropriate for pre-clinical testing.

Abstract 1032: Identification of Ran binding protein 6 as a novel negative regulator of EGFR and candidate tumor suppressor in glioblastoma

Amplification and overexpression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) are common in glioblastoma (GBM) and frequently associated with silencing of the phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) tumor suppressor. PTEN silencing has been associated with clinical resistance to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, in part by raising EGFR levels. Here, we investigated the effect of PTEN on the EGFR signaling complex by EGFR affinity immunopurification and mass spectrometry with and without PTEN knockdown. We identified Ran binding protein 6 (RanBP6), a 125-kDa protein of previously unknown functions, as EGFR interacting protein in PTEN expressing, but not PTEN knockdown cells. Further studies of the effect of RanBP6 on EGFR revealed that RanBP6 depletion by shRNA or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene silencing resulted in increased EGFR mRNA levels and upregulation of EGFR promoter activity. Consistent with a model of a negative EGFR regulation by RanBP6, we observed an inverse correlation between RanBP6 and EGFR mRNA levels in PTEN wildtype but not PTEN altered cancer cells in a large panel of human cancer cell lines (Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia). To further understand the mechanism of how RanBP6 negatively regulates EGFR mRNA level, we found that RanBP6 interacted with nuclear Ran-GTPase and repressed EGFR transcription by promoting nuclear import of Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Lastly, RanBP6 appeared to be frequently deleted on chromosome 9p in GBM. We showed that RanBP6 silencing raised EGFR levels and signal output and accelerated in-vivo glioma growth. Our results establish a novel function of RanBP6 as a link between EGFR signaling and the Ran-mediated nuclear import pathway, and identify RanBP6 as candidate tumor suppressor on chromosome 9p.

Citation Format: Wan-Ying Hsieh, Barbara Oldrini, Hediye Erdjument-Bromage, Paolo Codega, Maria S. Carro, Igor Vivanco, Dan Rohle, Carl Campos, Craig Bielski, Barry Taylor, Paul Tempst, Massimo Squatrito, Ingo K. Mellinghoff. Identification of Ran binding protein 6 as a novel negative regulator of EGFR and candidate tumor suppressor in glioblastoma [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 1032. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-1032

Take It Down a NOTCH in Forebrain Tumors

In this issue of Cancer Cell, Giachino and colleagues, employing various approaches, describe a tumor suppressor function for Notch signaling in forebrain tumors and suggest that decreased Notch activity could be a key molecular event in supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors (sPNET).

A kinase-independent function of AKT promotes cancer cell survival

The serine–threonine kinase AKT regulates proliferation and survival by phosphorylating a network of protein substrates. In this study, we describe a kinase-independent function of AKT. In cancer cells harboring gain-of-function alterations in MET, HER2, or Phosphatidyl-Inositol-3-Kinase (PI3K), catalytically inactive AKT (K179M) protected from drug induced cell death in a PH-domain dependent manner. An AKT kinase domain mutant found in human melanoma (G161V) lacked enzymatic activity in vitro and in AKT1/AKT2 double knockout cells, but promoted growth factor independent survival of primary human melanocytes. ATP-competitive AKT inhibitors failed to block the kinase-independent function of AKT, a liability that limits their effectiveness compared to allosteric AKT inhibitors. Our results broaden the current view of AKT function and have important implications for the development of AKT inhibitors for cancer.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03751.001

To maintain a healthy body, the ability of our cells to survive and divide is normally strictly controlled. If any cells manage to escape these restrictions, they may rapidly divide and form tumors, which can lead to cancer.

A protein called AKT can encourage cells to survive and divide, and in healthy cells it is only allowed to be active at specific times. However, in many cancer cells, the genes that make and control AKT activity can be altered by mutations, which can result in AKT being active at the wrong times.

Part of the AKT protein acts as an enzyme called a kinase and adds chemical groups called phosphates to other proteins. The phosphate groups can activate or deactivate these proteins to control cell survival and cell division. However, there are other sections to the AKT protein and it is not clear how they are involved in this protein's activity.

In this study, Vivanco et al. show that AKT has another role in cell survival that does not depend on its kinase. The experiments show that even when the kinase part of the protein is missing, AKT can help cancer cells to survive drug treatments and external conditions that would normally kill them. This role requires another section of the protein called the PH-domain.

There are several chemicals—called inhibitors—that can stop AKT from working properly, and they have the potential to be used to treat some types of cancer. These inhibitors work in different ways: some were able to block the activity of the kinase, but others inhibited AKT by binding to other parts of the protein. Therefore, to develop AKT inhibitors into effective drugs, it will be important to know precisely what role the protein plays in different types of cancers.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03751.002

An inhibitor of mutant IDH1 delays growth and promotes differentiation of glioma cells

The recent discovery of mutations in metabolic enzymes has rekindled interest in harnessing the altered metabolism of cancer cells for cancer therapy. One potential drug target is isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1), which is mutated in multiple human cancers. Here, we examine the role of mutant IDH1 in fully transformed cells with endogenous IDH1 mutations. A selective R132H-IDH1 inhibitor (AGI-5198) identified through a high-throughput screen blocked, in a dose-dependent manner, the ability of the mutant enzyme (mIDH1) to produce R-2-hydroxyglutarate (R-2HG). Under conditions of near-complete R-2HG inhibition, the mIDH1 inhibitor induced demethylation of histone H3K9me3 and expression of genes associated with gliogenic differentiation. Blockade of mIDH1 impaired the growth of IDH1-mutant--but not IDH1-wild-type--glioma cells without appreciable changes in genome-wide DNA methylation. These data suggest that mIDH1 may promote glioma growth through mechanisms beyond its well-characterized epigenetic effects.

Differential sensitivity of glioma- versus lung cancer-specific EGFR mutations to EGFR kinase inhibitors

Activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in glioblastoma (GBM) occurs through mutations or deletions in the extracellular (EC) domain. Unlike lung cancers with EGFR kinase domain (KD) mutations, GBMs respond poorly to the EGFR inhibitor erlotinib. Using RNAi, we show that GBM cells carrying EGFR EC mutations display EGFR addiction. In contrast to KD mutants found in lung cancer, glioma-specific EGFR EC mutants are poorly inhibited by EGFR inhibitors that target the active kinase conformation (e.g., erlotinib). Inhibitors that bind to the inactive EGFR conformation, however, potently inhibit EGFR EC mutants and induce cell death in EGFR-mutant GBM cells. Our results provide first evidence for single kinase addiction in GBM and suggest that the disappointing clinical activity of first-generation EGFR inhibitors in GBM versus lung cancer may be attributed to the different conformational requirements of mutant EGFR in these 2 cancer types.

SIGNIFICANCE

Approximately 40% of human glioblastomas harbor oncogenic EGFR alterations, but attempts to therapeutically target EGFR with first-generation EGFR kinase inhibitors have failed. Here, we demonstrate selective sensitivity of glioma-specific EGFR mutants to ATP-site competitive EGFR kinase inhibitors that target the inactive conformation of the catalytic domain.

Proteomic snapshot of the EGF-induced ubiquitin network

In this work, the authors report the first proteome-wide analysis of EGF-regulated ubiquitination, revealing surprisingly pervasive growth factor-induced ubiquitination across a broad range of cellular systems and signaling pathways.

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) triggers a novel ubiquitin (Ub)-based signaling cascade that appears to intersect both housekeeping and regulatory circuitries of cellular physiology.

The EGF-regulated Ubiproteome includes scores ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes, suggesting that the Ub signal might be rapidly transmitted and amplified through the Ub machinery.

The EGF-Ubiproteome overlaps significantly with the EGF-phosphotyrosine proteome, pointing to a possible crosstalk between these two signaling mechanisms.

The significant number of biological insights uncovered in our study (among which EphA2 as a novel, downstream ubiquitinated target of EGF receptor) illustrates the general relevance of such proteomic screens and calls for further analysis of the dynamics of the Ubiproteome.

Ubiquitination is a process by which one or more ubiquitin (Ub) monomers or chains are covalently attached to target proteins by E3 ligases. Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) revert Ub conjugation, thus ensuring a dynamic equilibrium between pools of ubiquitinated and deubiquitinated proteins (Amerik and Hochstrasser, 2004). Traditionally, ubiquitination has been associated with protein degradation; however, it is now becoming apparent that this post-translation modification is an important signaling mechanism that can modulate the function, localization and protein/protein interaction abilities of targets (Mukhopadhyay and Riezman, 2007; Ravid and Hochstrasser, 2008).

One of the best-characterized signaling pathways involving ubiquitination is the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced pathway. Upon EGF stimulation, a variety of proteins are subject to Ub modification. These include the EGF receptor (EGFR), which undergoes both multiple monoubiquitination (Haglund et al, 2003) and K63-linked polyubiquitination (Huang et al, 2006), as well as components of the downstream endocytic machinery, which are modified by monoubiquitination (Polo et al, 2002; Mukhopadhyay and Riezman, 2007). Ubiquitination of the EGFR has been shown to have an impact on receptor internalization, intracellular sorting and metabolic fate (Acconcia et al, 2009). However, little is known about the wider impact of EGF-induced ubiquitination on cellular homeostasis and on the pleiotropic biological functions of the EGFR. In this paper, we attempt to address this issue by characterizing the repertoire of proteins that are ubiquitinated upon EGF stimulation, i.e., the EGF-Ubiproteome.

To achieve this, we employed two different purification procedures (endogenous—based on the purification of proteins modified by endogenous Ub from human cells; tandem affinity purification (TAP)—based on the purification of proteins modified by an ectopically expressed tagged-Ub from mouse cells) with stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture-based MS to obtain both steady-state Ubiproteomes and EGF-induced Ubiproteomes. The steady-state Ubiproteomes consist of 1175 and 582 unambiguously identified proteins for the endogenous and TAP approaches, respectively, which we largely validated. Approximately 15% of the steady-state Ubiproteome was EGF-regulated at 10 min after stimulation; 176 of 1175 in the endogenous approach and 105 of 582 in the TAP approach. Both hyper- and hypoubiquitinated proteins were detected, indicating that EGFR-mediated signaling can modulate the ubiquitin network in both directions. Interestingly, many E2, E3 and DUBs were present in the EGF-Ubiproteome, suggesting that the Ub signal might be rapidly transmitted and amplified through the Ub machinery. Moreover, analysis of Ub-chain topology, performed using mass spectrometry and specific abs, suggested that the K63-linkage was the major Ub-based signal in the EGF-induced pathway.

To obtain a higher-resolution molecular picture of the EGF-regulated Ub network, we performed a network analysis on the non-redundant EGF-Ubiproteome (265 proteins). This analysis revealed that in addition to well-established liaisons with endocytosis-related pathways, the EGF-Ubiproteome intersects many circuitries of intracellular signaling involved in, e.g., DNA damage checkpoint regulation, cell-to-cell adhesion mechanisms and actin remodeling (Figure 5A).

Moreover, the EGF-Ubiproteome was enriched in hubs, proteins that can establish multiple protein/protein interaction and thereby regulate the organization of networks. These results are indicative of a crosstalk between EGFR-activated pathways and other signaling pathways through the Ub-network.

As EGF binding to its receptor also triggers a series of phosphorylation events, we examined whether there was any overlap between our EGF-Ubiproteome and published EGF-induced phosphotyrosine (pY) proteomes (Blagoev et al, 2004; Oyama et al, 2009; Hammond et al, 2010). We observed a significant overlap between ubiquitinated and pY proteins: 23% (61 of 265) of the EGF-Ubiproteome proteins were also tyrosine phosphorylated. Pathway analysis of these 61 Ub/pY-containing proteins revealed a significant enrichment in endocytic and signal-transduction pathways, while ‘hub analysis' revealed that Ub/pY-containing proteins are enriched in highly connected proteins to an even greater extent than Ub-containing proteins alone. These data point to a complex interplay between the Ub and pY networks and suggest that the flow of information from the receptor to downstream signaling molecules is driven by two complementary and interlinked enzymatic cascades: kinases/phosphatases and E3 ligases/DUBs.

Finally, we provided a proof of principle of the biological relevance of our EGF-Ubiproteome. We focused on EphA2, a receptor tyrosine kinase, which is involved in development and is often overexpressed in cancer (Pasquale, 2008). We started from the observation that EphA2 is present in the EGF-Ubiproteome and that proteins of the EGF-Ubiproteome are enriched in the Ephrin receptor signaling pathway(s). We confirmed the MS data by demonstrating that the EphA2 is ubiquitinated upon EGF stimulation. Moreover, EphA2 also undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation, indicating crosstalk between the two receptors. The EGFR kinase domain was essential for these modifications of EphA2, and a partial co-internalization with EGFR upon EGF activation was clearly detectable. Finally, we demonstrated by knockdown of EphA2 in MCF10A cells that this receptor is critically involved in EGFR biological outcomes, such as proliferation and migration (Figure 7).

Overall, our results unveil the complex impact of growth factor signaling on Ub-based intracellular networks to levels that extend well beyond what might have been expected and highlight the ‘resource' feature of our EGF-Ubiproteome.

The activity, localization and fate of many cellular proteins are regulated through ubiquitination, a process whereby one or more ubiquitin (Ub) monomers or chains are covalently attached to target proteins. While Ub-conjugated and Ub-associated proteomes have been described, we lack a high-resolution picture of the dynamics of ubiquitination in response to signaling. In this study, we describe the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-regulated Ubiproteome, as obtained by two complementary purification strategies coupled to quantitative proteomics. Our results unveil the complex impact of growth factor signaling on Ub-based intracellular networks to levels that extend well beyond what might have been expected. In addition to endocytic proteins, the EGF-regulated Ubiproteome includes a large number of signaling proteins, ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes, transporters and proteins involved in translation and transcription. The Ub-based signaling network appears to intersect both housekeeping and regulatory circuitries of cellular physiology. Finally, as proof of principle of the biological relevance of the EGF-Ubiproteome, we demonstrated that EphA2 is a novel, downstream ubiquitinated target of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), critically involved in EGFR biological responses.

Molecular mechanisms of coupled monoubiquitination

Many proteins contain ubiquitin-binding domains or motifs (UBDs), such as the UIM (ubiquitin-interacting motif) and are referred to as ubiquitin receptors. Ubiquitin receptors themselves are frequently monoubiquitinated by a process that requires the presence of a UBD and is referred to as coupled monoubiquitination. Using a UIM-containing protein, eps15, as a model, we show here that coupled monoubiquitination strictly depends on the ability of the UIM to bind to monoubiquitin (mUb). We found that the underlying molecular mechanism is based on interaction between the UIM and a ubiquitin ligase (E3), which has itself been modified by ubiquitination. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the in vivo ubiquitination of members of the Nedd4 family of E3 ligases correlates with their ability to monoubiquitinate eps15. Thus, our results clarify the mechanism of coupled monoubiquitination and identify the ubiquitination of E3 ligases as a critical determinant in this process.