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Wagle N, Grabiner BC, Van Allen EM, Amin-Mansour A, Taylor-Weiner A, Rosenberg M, Gray N, Barletta JA, Guo Y, Swanson SJ, Ruan DT, Hanna GJ, Haddad RI, Getz G, Kwiatkowski DJ, Carter SL, Sabatini DM, Jänne PA, Garraway LA, Lorch JH. Response and acquired resistance to everolimus in anaplastic thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med 2014; 371:1426-33. [PMID: 25295501 PMCID: PMC4564868 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1403352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Everolimus, an inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), is effective in treating tumors harboring alterations in the mTOR pathway. Mechanisms of resistance to everolimus remain undefined. Resistance developed in a patient with metastatic anaplastic thyroid carcinoma after an extraordinary 18-month response. Whole-exome sequencing of pretreatment and drug-resistant tumors revealed a nonsense mutation in TSC2, a negative regulator of mTOR, suggesting a mechanism for exquisite sensitivity to everolimus. The resistant tumor also harbored a mutation in MTOR that confers resistance to allosteric mTOR inhibition. The mutation remains sensitive to mTOR kinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Wagle
- From the Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School (N.W., E.M.V.A., N.G., R.I.H., D.J.K., P.A.J., L.A.G., J.H.L.), the Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School (N.W., E.M.V.A., Y.G., R.I.H., D.J.K., P.A.J., L.A.G., J.H.L.), the Departments of Pathology (J.A.B.) and Surgery (S.J.S., D.T.R.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, the Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (G.J.H.), and Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (P.A.J.) - all in Boston; and Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard (N.W., E.M.V.A., A.A.-M., A.T.-W., M.R., G.G., D.J.K., S.L.C., D.M.S., L.A.G.), Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and the MIT Department of Biology (B.C.G., D.M.S.), and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, MIT (B.C.G., D.M.S.) - all in Cambridge, MA
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Wagle N, Grabiner BC, Allen EMV, Amin-Mansour A, Carter SC, Gray N, Barletta JA, Swanson SJ, Ruan D, Kwiatkowski DJ, Hanna GJ, Haddad RI, Sabatini D, Janne PA, Garraway LA, Lorch JH. Abstract 1724: Genomic mechanisms of exquisite sensitivity and acquired resistance to everolimus in a patient with anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. Cancer Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2014-1724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Understanding genetic mechanisms of sensitivity and resistance to targeted anticancer therapies may improve patient selection and rational treatment designs. One approach to increase this understanding involves the study of exceptional responders: rare patients with unexpected exquisite sensitivity or durable responses to therapy. We identified an exceptional responder on a study of the allosteric mTOR inhibitor everolimus in thyroid cancer: a 57-yr-old woman with refractory metastatic anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC), a highly aggressive neoplasm with no adequate therapies and a median survival of 5 months. After beginning treatment with everolimus, the patient experienced a near complete response that lasted for 18 months, followed by progressive disease, which was then re-biopsied. To date, mechanisms of clinical resistance to mTOR inhibition have not been described.
We performed whole exome sequencing (WES) of both pre-treatment and drug resistant tumor tissue to look for the underlying mechanisms of exquisite sensitivity and acquired resistance to everolimus. WES of the pre-treatment tumor revealed a somatic nonsense mutation in TSC2, a tumor suppressor gene whose inactivation is known to activate the mTOR pathway and result in sensitivity to mTOR inhibition in some cancers. WES of the drug resistant tumor additionally revealed a mutation in mTOR (mTOR-F2108L) not detected in the pre-treatment tumor. Structural modeling demonstrated that this mutation occurs in the FKBP12-rapamycin binding domain of mTOR and is predicted to prevent binding of the drug to the protein. Overexpressing mTOR-F2108L in HEK-293T cells resulted in significant resistance to rapamycin compared to cells expressing wild type (wt) mTOR. In cells expressing the mutant mTOR, rapamycin did not decrease phosphorylation of S6K1, a downstream target of mTOR, compared with cells expressing wt mTOR. Notably, cells expressing mTOR-F2108L remained sensitive to the direct TOR inhibitor torin, suggesting a therapeutic approach to overcome resistance in this patient.
In summary, we add ATC to the growing list of cancers found to be exquisitely sensitive to everolimus when activating mTOR pathway mutations are present. Moreover, we present the first reported, to our knowledge, mechanism of acquired resistance to everolimus identified in patients. The fact that this occurs via a binding domain mutation that blocks allosteric mTOR inhibition suggests that followup therapy with direct TOR inhibitors may still have benefit in some patients who develop resistance to everolimus. The use of precision medicine approaches in ATC to screen for alterations in the mTOR pathway may help identify subsets of patients who would benefit from targeted therapies directed against mTOR. Moreover, the use of serial biopsies to profile patients who develop resistance to everolimus could dictate optimal followup treatment in ATC and other cancers.
Citation Format: Nikhil Wagle, Brian C. Grabiner, Eliezer M. Van Allen, Ali Amin-Mansour, Scott C. Carter, Nathanael Gray, Justine A. Barletta, Scott J. Swanson, Daniel Ruan, David J. Kwiatkowski, Glenn J. Hanna, Robert I. Haddad, David Sabatini, Pasi A. Janne, Levi A. Garraway, Jochen H. Lorch. Genomic mechanisms of exquisite sensitivity and acquired resistance to everolimus in a patient with anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 1724. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-1724
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Affiliation(s)
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- 2Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA
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Grabiner BC, Nardi V, Birsoy K, Possemato R, Shen K, Sinha S, Jordan A, Beck AH, Sabatini DM. A diverse array of cancer-associated MTOR mutations are hyperactivating and can predict rapamycin sensitivity. Cancer Discov 2014; 4:554-63. [PMID: 24631838 PMCID: PMC4012430 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-13-0929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Genes encoding components of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling axis are frequently mutated in cancer, but few mutations have been characterized in MTOR, the gene encoding the mTOR kinase. Using publicly available tumor genome sequencing data, we generated a comprehensive catalog of mTOR pathway mutations in cancer, identifying 33 MTOR mutations that confer pathway hyperactivation. The mutations cluster in six distinct regions in the C-terminal half of mTOR and occur in multiple cancer types, with one cluster particularly prominent in kidney cancer. The activating mutations do not affect mTOR complex assembly, but a subset reduces binding to the mTOR inhibitor DEPTOR. mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling in cells expressing various activating mutations remains sensitive to pharmacologic mTOR inhibition, but is partially resistant to nutrient deprivation. Finally, cancer cell lines with hyperactivating MTOR mutations display heightened sensitivity to rapamycin both in culture and in vivo xenografts, suggesting that such mutations confer mTOR pathway dependency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C. Grabiner
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Valentina Nardi
- Department of Pathology and Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Kivanc Birsoy
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Richard Possemato
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Kuang Shen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Sumi Sinha
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Alexander Jordan
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Andrew H. Beck
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215
| | - David M. Sabatini
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139
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Wagle N, Grabiner BC, Van Allen EM, Hodis E, Jacobus S, Supko JG, Stewart M, Choueiri TK, Gandhi L, Cleary JM, Elfiky AA, Taplin ME, Stack EC, Signoretti S, Loda M, Shapiro GI, Sabatini DM, Lander ES, Gabriel SB, Kantoff PW, Garraway LA, Rosenberg JE. Activating mTOR mutations in a patient with an extraordinary response on a phase I trial of everolimus and pazopanib. Cancer Discov 2014; 4:546-53. [PMID: 24625776 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-13-0353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the genetic mechanisms of sensitivity to targeted anticancer therapies may improve patient selection, response to therapy, and rational treatment designs. One approach to increase this understanding involves detailed studies of exceptional responders: rare patients with unexpected exquisite sensitivity or durable responses to therapy. We identified an exceptional responder in a phase I study of pazopanib and everolimus in advanced solid tumors. Whole-exome sequencing of a patient with a 14-month complete response on this trial revealed two concurrent mutations in mTOR, the target of everolimus. In vitro experiments demonstrate that both mutations are activating, suggesting a biologic mechanism for exquisite sensitivity to everolimus in this patient. The use of precision (or "personalized") medicine approaches to screen patients with cancer for alterations in the mTOR pathway may help to identify subsets of patients who may benefit from targeted therapies directed against mTOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Wagle
- Departments of 1Medical Oncology and 2Biostatistics and Computational Biology, 3Center for Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; Departments of 4Medicine and 5Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School; 6Division of Hematology/Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston; 7Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT; 8Department of Biology, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research; 9Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and 10Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
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Bar-Peled L, Chantranupong L, Cherniack AD, Chen WW, Ottina KA, Grabiner BC, Spear ED, Carter SL, Meyerson M, Sabatini DM. A Tumor suppressor complex with GAP activity for the Rag GTPases that signal amino acid sufficiency to mTORC1. Science 2013; 340:1100-6. [PMID: 23723238 DOI: 10.1126/science.1232044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 765] [Impact Index Per Article: 69.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) pathway promotes cell growth in response to many cues, including amino acids, which act through the Rag guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) to promote mTORC1 translocation to the lysosomal surface, its site of activation. Although progress has been made in identifying positive regulators of the Rags, it is unknown if negative factors also exist. Here, we identify GATOR as a complex that interacts with the Rags and is composed of two subcomplexes we call GATOR1 and -2. Inhibition of GATOR1 subunits (DEPDC5, Nprl2, and Nprl3) makes mTORC1 signaling resistant to amino acid deprivation. In contrast, inhibition of GATOR2 subunits (Mios, WDR24, WDR59, Seh1L, and Sec13) suppresses mTORC1 signaling, and epistasis analysis shows that GATOR2 negatively regulates DEPDC5. GATOR1 has GTPase-activating protein (GAP) activity for RagA and RagB, and its components are mutated in human cancer. In cancer cells with inactivating mutations in GATOR1, mTORC1 is hyperactive and insensitive to amino acid starvation, and such cells are hypersensitive to rapamycin, an mTORC1 inhibitor. Thus, we identify a key negative regulator of the Rag GTPases and reveal that, like other mTORC1 regulators, Rag function can be deregulated in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liron Bar-Peled
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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Yang WL, Wang J, Chan CH, Lee SW, Campos AD, Lamothe B, Hur L, Grabiner BC, Lin X, Darnay BG, Lin HK. The E3 ligase TRAF6 regulates Akt ubiquitination and activation. Science 2009; 325:1134-8. [PMID: 19713527 DOI: 10.1126/science.1175065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 463] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Akt signaling plays a central role in many biological functions, such as cell proliferation and apoptosis. Because Akt (also known as protein kinase B) resides primarily in the cytosol, it is not known how these signaling molecules are recruited to the plasma membrane and subsequently activated by growth factor stimuli. We found that the protein kinase Akt undergoes lysine-63 chain ubiquitination, which is important for Akt membrane localization and phosphorylation. TRAF6 was found to be a direct E3 ligase for Akt and was essential for Akt ubiquitination, membrane recruitment, and phosphorylation upon growth-factor stimulation. The human cancer-associated Akt mutant displayed an increase in Akt ubiquitination, in turn contributing to the enhancement of Akt membrane localization and phosphorylation. Thus, Akt ubiquitination is an important step for oncogenic Akt activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Lei Yang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Sun W, Li H, Yu Y, Fan Y, Grabiner BC, Mao R, Ge N, Zhang H, Fu S, Lin X, Yang J. MEKK3 is required for lysophosphatidic acid-induced NF-kappaB activation. Cell Signal 2009; 21:1488-94. [PMID: 19465115 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2009.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2009] [Accepted: 05/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a potent agonist that exerts various cellular functions on many cell types through binding to its cognate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Although LPA induces NF-kappaB activation by acting on its GPCR receptor, the molecular mechanism of LPA receptor-mediated NF-kappaB activation remains to be well defined. In the present study, by using MEKK3-, TAK1-, and IKKbeta-deficient murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), we found that MEKK3 but not TAK1 deficiency impairs LPA and protein kinase C (PKC)-induced IkappaB kinase (IKK)-NF-kappaB activation, and IKKbeta is required for PKC-induced NF-kappaB activation. In addition, we demonstrate that LPA and PKC-induced IL-6 and MIP-2 production are abolished in the absence of MEKK3 but not TAK1. Together, our results provide the genetic evidence that MEKK3 but not TAK1 is required for LPA receptor-mediated IKK-NF-kappaB activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Sun
- Texas Children's Cancer Center, Department of Pediatrics, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Grabiner BC, Blonska M, Lin PC, You Y, Wang D, Sun J, Darnay BG, Dong C, Lin X. CARMA3 deficiency abrogates G protein-coupled receptor-induced NF-{kappa}B activation. Genes Dev 2007; 21:984-96. [PMID: 17438001 PMCID: PMC1847715 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1502507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2006] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play pivotal roles in regulating various cellular functions. Although many GPCRs induce NF-kappaB activation, the molecular mechanism of GPCR-induced NF-kappaB activation remains largely unknown. CARMA3 (CARD and MAGUK domain-containing protein 3) is a scaffold molecule with unknown biological functions. By generating CARMA3 knockout mice using the gene targeting approach, here we show CARMA3 is required for GPCR-induced NF-kappaB activation. Mechanistically, we found that CARMA3 deficiency impairs GPCR-induced IkappaB kinase (IKK) activation, although it does not affect GPCR-induced IKKalpha/beta phosphorylation, indicating that inducible phosphorylation of IKKalpha/beta alone is not sufficient to induce its kinase activity. We also found that CARMA3 is physically associated with NEMO/IKKgamma, and induces polyubiquitination of an unknown protein(s) that associates with NEMO, likely by linking NEMO to TRAF6. Consistently, we found TRAF6 deficiency also abrogates GPCR-induced NF-kappaB activation. Together, our results provide the genetic evidence that CARMA3 is required for GPCR-induced NF-kappaB activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C. Grabiner
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Marzenna Blonska
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Pei-Chun Lin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Yun You
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Donghai Wang
- The CBR Institute for Biomedical Research, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Jiyuan Sun
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Bryant G. Darnay
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Chen Dong
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Xin Lin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Kim HJ, Litzenburger BC, Cui X, Delgado DA, Grabiner BC, Lin X, Lewis MT, Gottardis MM, Wong TW, Attar RM, Carboni JM, Lee AV. Constitutively active type I insulin-like growth factor receptor causes transformation and xenograft growth of immortalized mammary epithelial cells and is accompanied by an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition mediated by NF-kappaB and snail. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:3165-75. [PMID: 17296734 PMCID: PMC1899918 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01315-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Type I insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-IR) can transform mouse fibroblasts; however, little is known about the transforming potential of IGF-IR in human fibroblasts or epithelial cells. We found that overexpression of a constitutively activated IGF-IR (CD8-IGF-IR) was sufficient to cause transformation of immortalized human mammary epithelial cells and growth in immunocompromised mice. Furthermore, CD8-IGF-IR caused cells to undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) which was associated with dramatically increased migration and invasion. The EMT was mediated by the induction of the transcriptional repressor Snail and downregulation of E-cadherin. NF-kappaB was highly active in CD8-IGF-IR-MCF10A cells, and both increased levels of Snail and the EMT were partially reversed by blocking NF-kappaB or IGF-IR activity. This study places IGF-IR among a small group of oncogenes that, when overexpressed alone, can confer in vivo tumorigenic growth of MCF10A cells and indicates the hierarchy in the mechanism of IGF-IR-induced EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Jung Kim
- Baylor College of Medicine, Breast Center MS:600, One Baylor Plaza, Room N1110, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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