Comparative transcriptomics of seed nourishing tissues: uncovering conserved and divergent pathways in seed plants

The evolutionary and ecological success of spermatophytes is intrinsically linked to the seed habit, which provides a protective environment for the initial development of the new generation. This environment includes an ephemeral nourishing tissue that supports embryo growth. In gymnosperms this tissue originates from the asexual proliferation of the maternal megagametophyte, while in angiosperms it is a product of fertilization, and is called the endosperm. The emergence of these nourishing tissues is of profound evolutionary value, and they are also food staples for most of the world's population. Here, using Orthofinder to infer orthologue genes among newly generated and previously published datasets, we provide a comparative transcriptomic analysis of seed nourishing tissues from species of several angiosperm clades, including those of early diverging lineages, as well as of one gymnosperm. Our results show that, although the structure and composition of seed nourishing tissues has seen significant divergence along evolution, there are signatures that are conserved throughout the phylogeny. Conversely, we identified processes that are specific to species within the clades studied, and thus illustrate their functional divergence. With this, we aimed to provide a foundation for future studies on the evolutionary history of seed nourishing structures, as well as a resource for gene discovery in future functional studies.

Molecular Defense Response of Pine Trees (Pinus spp.) to the Parasitic Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is a severe environmental problem in Eastern Asia and Western Europe, devastating large forest areas and causing significant economic losses. This disease is caused by the pine wood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, a parasitic migratory nematode that infects the stem of conifer trees. Here we review what is currently known about the molecular defense response in pine trees after infection with PWN, focusing on common responses in different species. By giving particular emphasis to resistance mechanisms reported for selected varieties and families, we identified shared genes and pathways associated with resistance, including the activation of oxidative stress response, cell wall lignification, and biosynthesis of terpenoids and phenylpropanoids. The role of post-transcriptional regulation by small RNAs in pine response to PWN infection is also discussed, as well as the possible implementation of innovative RNA-interference technologies, with a focus on trans-kingdom small RNAs. Finally, the defense response induced by elicitors applied to pine plants before PWN infection to prompt resistance is reviewed. Perspectives about the impact of these findings and future research approaches are discussed.

miR160 Interacts in vivo With Pinus pinaster AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 18 Target Site and Negatively Regulates Its Expression During Conifer Somatic Embryo Development

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of several plant developmental processes including embryogenesis. Most miRNA families are conserved across major groups of plant species, but their regulatory roles have been studied mainly in model species like Arabidopsis and other angiosperms. In gymnosperms, miRNA-dependent regulation has been less studied since functional approaches in these species are often difficult to establish. Given the fundamental roles of auxin signaling in somatic embryogenesis (SE) induction and embryo development, we investigated a previously predicted interaction between miR160 and a putative target encoding AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 18 in Pinus pinaster (PpARF18) embryonic tissues. Phylogenetic analysis of AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 18 (ARF18) from Pinus pinaster and Picea abies, used here as a model system of conifer embryogenesis, showed their close relatedness to AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR (ARF) genes known to be targeted by miR160 in other species, including Arabidopsis ARF10 and ARF16. By using a luciferase (LUC) reporter system for miRNA activity in Arabidopsis protoplasts, we have confirmed that P. pinaster miR160 (ppi-miR160) interacts in vivo with PpARF18 target site. When the primary miR160 from P. pinaster was overexpressed in protoplasts under non-limiting levels of ARGONAUTE1, a significant increase of miR160 target cleavage activity was observed. In contrast, co-expression of the primary miRNA and the target mimic MIM160 led to a decrease of miR160 activity. Our results further support that this interaction is functional during consecutive stages of SE in the conifer model P. abies. Expression analyses conducted in five stages of development, from proembryogenic masses (PEMs) to the mature embryo, show that conifer ARF18 is negatively regulated by miR160 toward the fully developed mature embryo when miR160 reached its highest expression level. This study reports the first in vivo validation of a predicted target site of a conifer miRNA supporting the conservation of miR160 interaction with ARF targets in gymnosperms. The approach used here should be useful for future characterization of miRNA functions in conifer embryogenesis.

Epigenetics at the crossroads of secondary growth regulation

The development of plant tissues and organs during post-embryonic growth occurs through the activity of both primary and secondary meristems. While primary meristems (root and shoot apical meristems) promote axial plant growth, secondary meristems (vascular and cork cambium or phellogen) promote radial thickening and plant axes strengthening. The vascular cambium forms the secondary xylem and phloem, whereas the cork cambium gives rise to the periderm that envelops stems and roots. Periderm takes on an increasingly important role in plant survival under climate change scenarios, but it is also a forest product with unique features, constituting the basis of a sustainable and profitable cork industry. There is established evidence that epigenetic mechanisms involving histone post-translational modifications, DNA methylation, and small RNAs play important roles in the activity of primary meristem cells, their maintenance, and differentiation of progeny cells. Here, we review the current knowledge on the epigenetic regulation of secondary meristems, particularly focusing on the phellogen activity. We also discuss the possible involvement of DNA methylation in the regulation of periderm contrasting phenotypes, given the potential impact of translating this knowledge into innovative breeding programs.

Insights Into the Mechanisms Implicated in Pinus pinaster Resistance to Pinewood Nematode

Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by the plant-parasitic nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, has become a severe environmental problem in the Iberian Peninsula with devastating effects in Pinus pinaster forests. Despite the high levels of this species' susceptibility, previous studies reported heritable resistance in P. pinaster trees. Understanding the basis of this resistance can be of extreme relevance for future programs aiming at reducing the disease impact on P. pinaster forests. In this study, we highlighted the mechanisms possibly involved in P. pinaster resistance to PWD, by comparing the transcriptional changes between resistant and susceptible plants after infection. Our analysis revealed a higher number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in resistant plants (1,916) when compared with susceptible plants (1,226). Resistance to PWN is mediated by the induction of the jasmonic acid (JA) defense pathway, secondary metabolism pathways, lignin synthesis, oxidative stress response genes, and resistance genes. Quantification of the acetyl bromide-soluble lignin confirmed a significant increase of cell wall lignification of stem tissues around the inoculation zone in resistant plants. In addition to less lignified cell walls, susceptibility to the pine wood nematode seems associated with the activation of the salicylic acid (SA) defense pathway at 72 hpi, as revealed by the higher SA levels in the tissues of susceptible plants. Cell wall reinforcement and hormone signaling mechanisms seem therefore essential for a resistance response.

ACAULIS5 Is Required for Cytokinin Accumulation and Function During Secondary Growth of Populus Trees

In the primary root and young hypocotyl of Arabidopsis, ACAULIS5 promotes translation of SUPPRESSOR OF ACAULIS51 (SAC51) and thereby inhibits cytokinin biosynthesis and vascular cell division. In this study, the relationships between ACAULIS5, SAC51 and cytokinin biosynthesis were investigated during secondary growth of Populus stems. Overexpression of ACAULIS5 from the constitutive 35S promoter in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × Populus tremuloides) trees suppressed the expression level of ACAULIS5, which resulted in low levels of the physiologically active cytokinin bases as well as their direct riboside precursors in the transgenic lines. Low ACAULIS5 expression and low cytokinin levels of the transgenic trees coincided with low cambial activity of the stem. ACAULIS5 therefore, contrary to its function in young seedlings in Arabidopsis, stimulates cytokinin accumulation and cambial activity during secondary growth of the stem. This function is not derived from maturing secondary xylem tissues as transgenic suppression of ACAULIS5 levels in these tissues did not influence secondary growth. Interestingly, evidence was obtained for increased activity of the anticlinal division of the cambial initials under conditions of low ACAULIS5 expression and low cytokinin accumulation. We propose that ACAULIS5 integrates auxin and cytokinin signaling to promote extensive secondary growth of tree stems.

Enabling reusability of plant phenomic datasets with MIAPPE 1.1

Enabling data reuse and knowledge discovery is increasingly critical in modern science, and requires an effort towards standardising data publication practices. This is particularly challenging in the plant phenotyping domain, due to its complexity and heterogeneity. We have produced the MIAPPE 1.1 release, which enhances the existing MIAPPE standard in coverage, to support perennial plants, in structure, through an explicit data model, and in clarity, through definitions and examples. We evaluated MIAPPE 1.1 by using it to express several heterogeneous phenotyping experiments in a range of different formats, to demonstrate its applicability and the interoperability between the various implementations. Furthermore, the extended coverage is demonstrated by the fact that one of the datasets could not have been described under MIAPPE 1.0. MIAPPE 1.1 marks a major step towards enabling plant phenotyping data reusability, thanks to its extended coverage, and especially the formalisation of its data model, which facilitates its implementation in different formats. Community feedback has been critical to this development, and will be a key part of ensuring adoption of the standard.

Enabling reusability of plant phenomic datasets with MIAPPE 1.1

Enabling data reuse and knowledge discovery is increasingly critical in modern science, and requires an effort towards standardising data publication practices. This is particularly challenging in the plant phenotyping domain, due to its complexity and heterogeneity. We have produced the MIAPPE 1.1 release, which enhances the existing MIAPPE standard in coverage, to support perennial plants, in structure, through an explicit data model, and in clarity, through definitions and examples. We evaluated MIAPPE 1.1 by using it to express several heterogeneous phenotyping experiments in a range of different formats, to demonstrate its applicability and the interoperability between the various implementations. Furthermore, the extended coverage is demonstrated by the fact that one of the datasets could not have been described under MIAPPE 1.0. MIAPPE 1.1 marks a major step towards enabling plant phenotyping data reusability, thanks to its extended coverage, and especially the formalisation of its data model, which facilitates its implementation in different formats. Community feedback has been critical to this development, and will be a key part of ensuring adoption of the standard.

Enabling reusability of plant phenomic datasets with MIAPPE 1.1

Enabling data reuse and knowledge discovery is increasingly critical in modern science, and requires an effort towards standardising data publication practices. This is particularly challenging in the plant phenotyping domain, due to its complexity and heterogeneity. We have produced the MIAPPE 1.1 release, which enhances the existing MIAPPE standard in coverage, to support perennial plants, in structure, through an explicit data model, and in clarity, through definitions and examples. We evaluated MIAPPE 1.1 by using it to express several heterogeneous phenotyping experiments in a range of different formats, to demonstrate its applicability and the interoperability between the various implementations. Furthermore, the extended coverage is demonstrated by the fact that one of the datasets could not have been described under MIAPPE 1.0. MIAPPE 1.1 marks a major step towards enabling plant phenotyping data reusability, thanks to its extended coverage, and especially the formalisation of its data model, which facilitates its implementation in different formats. Community feedback has been critical to this development, and will be a key part of ensuring adoption of the standard.

Phellem versus xylem: genome-wide transcriptomic analysis reveals novel regulators of cork formation in cork oak

Cork cambium (or phellogen) is a secondary meristem responsible for the formation of phelloderm and phellem/cork, which together compose the periderm. In Quercus suber L., the phellogen is active throughout the entire life of the tree, producing a continuous and renewable outer bark of cork. To identify specific candidate genes associated with cork cambium activity and phellem differentiation, we performed a comparative transcriptomic study of Q. suber secondary growth tissues (xylem and phellogen/phellem) using RNA-seq. The present work provides a high-resolution map of all the transcripts identified in the phellogen/phellem tissues. A total of 6013 differentially expressed genes were identified, with 2875 of the transcripts being specifically enriched during the cork formation process versus secondary xylem formation. Furthermore, cork samples originating from the original phellogen (`virgin' cork) and from a traumatic phellogen (`amadia' cork) were also compared. Our results point to a shortlist of potentially relevant candidate genes regulating phellogen activity and phellem differentiation, including novel genes involved in the suberization process, as well as genes associated to ethylene and jasmonate signaling and to meristem function. The future functional characterization of some of the identified candidate genes will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying cork cambium activity and phellem differentiation.

Small RNA profiling in Pinus pinaster reveals the transcriptome of developing seeds and highlights differences between zygotic and somatic embryos

Regulation of seed development by small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) is an important mechanism controlling a crucial phase of the life cycle of seed plants. In this work, sRNAs from seed tissues (zygotic embryos and megagametophytes) and from somatic embryos of Pinus pinaster were analysed to identify putative regulators of seed/embryo development in conifers. In total, sixteen sRNA libraries covering several developmental stages were sequenced. We show that embryos and megagametophytes express a large population of 21-nt sRNAs and that substantial amounts of 24-nt sRNAs were also detected, especially in somatic embryos. A total of 215 conserved miRNAs, one third of which are conifer-specific, and 212 high-confidence novel miRNAs were annotated. MIR159, MIR171 and MIR394 families were found in embryos, but were greatly reduced in megagametophytes. Other families, like MIR397 and MIR408, predominated in somatic embryos and megagametophytes, suggesting their expression in somatic embryos is associated with in vitro conditions. Analysis of the predicted miRNA targets suggests that miRNA functions are relevant in several processes including transporter activity at the cotyledon-forming stage, and sulfur metabolism across several developmental stages. An important resource for studying conifer embryogenesis is made available here, which may also provide insightful clues for improving clonal propagation via somatic embryogenesis.

NEP-TC a rRNA Methyltransferase Involved on Somatic Embryogenesis of Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.)

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is an important biotechnological tool for large-scale clonal propagation and for embryogenesis research. Moreover, genetic transformation and cryopreservation procedures in many species rely on efficient SE protocols. We have been studying different aspects related to SE induction and somatic embryo development in tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.), a small tree from the Solanaceae family. Previous proteomic analyses identified a protein (NEP-TC, 26.5 kDa) consistently present in non-embryogenic calluses of tamarillo, but absent in the embryogenic ones. In this work, the role of NEP-TC during SE was assessed by gene expression analysis and immunolocalization. The results obtained demonstrated that NEP-TC is a putative member of the SpoU rRNA methylase family. This protein, present in the cytoplasm and nucleus, is expressed in non-embryogenic cells and not expressed in embryogenic cells. Slightly enhanced SE induction levels in tamarillo plants with NEP-TC down-regulated levels also supports the role of this protein on SE induction. Heterologous expression was used to confirm NEP-TC rRNA methyltransferase activity, with enhanced activity levels when rRNA was used as a substrate. These data relate a putative member of the SpoU methylase family with plant morphogenesis, in particular with SE induction.

Comprehensive assembly and analysis of the transcriptome of maritime pine developing embryos

BACKGROUND

There are clear differences in embryo development between angiosperm and gymnosperm species. Most of the current knowledge on gene expression and regulation during plant embryo development has derived from studies on angiosperms species, in particular from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. The few published studies on transcript profiling of conifer embryogenesis show the existence of many putative embryo-specific transcripts without an assigned function. In order to extend the knowledge on the transcriptomic expression during conifer embryogenesis, we sequenced the transcriptome of zygotic embryos for several developmental stages that cover most of Pinus pinaster (maritime pine) embryogenesis.

RESULTS

Total RNA samples collected from five zygotic embryo developmental stages were sequenced with Illumina technology. A de novo transcriptome was assembled as no genome sequence is yet published for Pinus pinaster. The transcriptome of reference for the period of zygotic embryogenesis in maritime pine contains 67,429 transcripts, which likely encode 58,527 proteins. The annotation shows a significant percentage, 31%, of predicted proteins exclusively present in pine embryogenesis. Functional categories and enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed transcripts evidenced carbohydrate transport and metabolism over-representation in early embryo stages, as highlighted by the identification of many putative glycoside hydrolases, possibly associated with cell wall modification, and carbohydrate transport transcripts. Moreover, the predominance of chromatin remodelling events was detected in early to middle embryogenesis, associated with an active synthesis of histones and their post-translational modifiers related to increased transcription, as well as silencing of transposons.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results extend the understanding of gene expression and regulation during zygotic embryogenesis in conifers and are a valuable resource to support further improvements in somatic embryogenesis for vegetative propagation of conifer species. Specific transcripts associated with carbohydrate metabolism, monosaccharide transport and epigenetic regulation seem to play an important role in pine early embryogenesis and may be a source of reliable molecular markers for early embryogenesis.

The draft genome sequence of cork oak

Cork oak (Quercus suber) is native to southwest Europe and northwest Africa where it plays a crucial environmental and economical role. To tackle the cork oak production and industrial challenges, advanced research is imperative but dependent on the availability of a sequenced genome. To address this, we produced the first draft version of the cork oak genome. We followed a de novo assembly strategy based on high-throughput sequence data, which generated a draft genome comprising 23,347 scaffolds and 953.3 Mb in size. A total of 79,752 genes and 83,814 transcripts were predicted, including 33,658 high-confidence genes. An InterPro signature assignment was detected for 69,218 transcripts, which represented 82.6% of the total. Validation studies demonstrated the genome assembly and annotation completeness and highlighted the usefulness of the draft genome for read mapping of high-throughput sequence data generated using different protocols. All data generated is available through the public databases where it was deposited, being therefore ready to use by the academic and industry communities working on cork oak and/or related species.

miRPursuit-a pipeline for automated analyses of small RNAs in model and nonmodel plants

miRPursuit is a pipeline developed for running end-to-end analyses of high-throughput small RNA (sRNA) sequence data in model and nonmodel plants, from raw data to identified and annotated conserved and novel sequences. It consists of a series of UNIX shell scripts, which connect open-source sRNA analysis software. The involved parameters can be combined with convenient workflow management by users without advanced computational skills. miRPursuit presents several advantages when compared to other tools, including the possibility of processing several sRNA libraries in parallel, thus easily allowing a comparison of the differences in sRNA read accumulation among sRNA libraries. We validate miRPursuit by using datasets from a model plant and discuss its performance with the analysis of sRNAs from non-model species.

The pivotal role of small non-coding RNAs in the regulation of seed development

Seeds represent a crucial stage of the seed plants life cycle. It is during seed development that the foundations of the future plant body, and the ability to give rise to a new plant capable of growing under sometimes adverse environmental conditions, are established. Small non-coding RNAs are major regulators of gene expression both at the post-transcriptional and transcriptional levels and, not surprisingly, these elements play major roles in seed development and germination. We review here the current knowledge about small RNA expression and functions in seed development, going from the morphogenesis phase comprehending embryo development and patterning, to the several steps of the maturation phase, ending in the transition to the germination. A special focus is given to the small RNAs for which functional studies have been conducted and their participation in regulatory networks operating in seeds. Many challenges remain ahead for dissecting the complex small RNA landscape in seeds, but this is a highly relevant issue in plant biology and advances in this area will most certainly impact plant breeding.

The SHORT-ROOT-like gene PtSHR2B is involved in Populus phellogen activity

SHORT-ROOT (SHR) is a GRAS transcription factor first characterized for its role in the specification of the stem cell niche and radial patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana (At) roots. Three SHR-like genes have been identified in Populus trichocarpa (Pt). PtSHR1 shares high similarity with AtSHR over the entire length of the coding sequence. The two other Populus SHR-like genes, PtSHR2A and PtSHR2B, are shorter in their 5' ends when compared with AtSHR. Unlike PtSHR1, that is expressed throughout the cambial zone of greenhouse-grown Populus trees, PtSHR2Bprom:uidA expression was detected in the phellogen. Additionally, PtSHR1 and PtSHR2B expression patterns markedly differ in the shoot apex and roots of in vitro plants. Transgenic hybrid aspen expressing PtSHR2B under the 35S constitutive promoter showed overall reduced tree growth while the proportion of bark increased relative to the wood. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) revealed increased transcript levels of cytokinin metabolism and response-related genes in the transgenic plants consistent with an increase of total cytokinin levels. This was confirmed by cytokinin quantification by LC-MS/MS. Our results indicate that PtSHR2B appears to function in the phellogen and therefore in the regulation of phellem and periderm formation, possibly acting through modulation of cytokinin homeostasis. Furthermore, this work points to a functional diversification of SHR after the divergence of the Populus and Arabidopsis lineages. This finding may contribute to selection and breeding strategies of cork oak in which, unlike Populus, the phellogen is active throughout the entire tree lifespan, being at the basis of a highly profitable cork industry.

Characterization of the cork oak transcriptome dynamics during acorn development

BACKGROUND

Cork oak (Quercus suber L.) has a natural distribution across western Mediterranean regions and is a keystone forest tree species in these ecosystems. The fruiting phase is especially critical for its regeneration but the molecular mechanisms underlying the biochemical and physiological changes during cork oak acorn development are poorly understood. In this study, the transcriptome of the cork oak acorn, including the seed, was characterized in five stages of development, from early development to acorn maturation, to identify the dominant processes in each stage and reveal transcripts with important functions in gene expression regulation and response to water.

RESULTS

A total of 80,357 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were de novo assembled from RNA-Seq libraries representative of the several acorn developmental stages. Approximately 7.6 % of the total number of transcripts present in Q. suber transcriptome was identified as acorn specific. The analysis of expression profiles during development returned 2,285 differentially expressed (DE) transcripts, which were clustered into six groups. The stage of development corresponding to the mature acorn exhibited an expression profile markedly different from other stages. Approximately 22 % of the DE transcripts putatively code for transcription factors (TF) or transcriptional regulators, and were found almost equally distributed among the several expression profile clusters, highlighting their major roles in controlling the whole developmental process. On the other hand, carbohydrate metabolism, the biological pathway most represented during acorn development, was especially prevalent in mid to late stages as evidenced by enrichment analysis. We further show that genes related to response to water, water deprivation and transport were mostly represented during the early (S2) and the last stage (S8) of acorn development, when tolerance to water desiccation is possibly critical for acorn viability.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge this work represents the first report of acorn development transcriptomics in oaks. The obtained results provide novel insights into the developmental biology of cork oak acorns, highlighting transcripts putatively involved in the regulation of the gene expression program and in specific processes likely essential for adaptation. It is expected that this knowledge can be transferred to other oak species of great ecological value.

A comprehensive assessment of the transcriptome of cork oak (Quercus suber) through EST sequencing

Background

Cork oak (Quercus suber) is one of the rare trees with the ability to produce cork, a material widely used to make wine bottle stoppers, flooring and insulation materials, among many other uses. The molecular mechanisms of cork formation are still poorly understood, in great part due to the difficulty in studying a species with a long life-cycle and for which there is scarce molecular/genomic information. Cork oak forests are of great ecological importance and represent a major economic and social resource in Southern Europe and Northern Africa. However, global warming is threatening the cork oak forests by imposing thermal, hydric and many types of novel biotic stresses. Despite the economic and social value of the Q. suber species, few genomic resources have been developed, useful for biotechnological applications and improved forest management.

Results

We generated in excess of 7 million sequence reads, by pyrosequencing 21 normalized cDNA libraries derived from multiple Q. suber tissues and organs, developmental stages and physiological conditions. We deployed a stringent sequence processing and assembly pipeline that resulted in the identification of ~159,000 unigenes. These were annotated according to their similarity to known plant genes, to known Interpro domains, GO classes and E.C. numbers. The phylogenetic extent of this ESTs set was investigated, and we found that cork oak revealed a significant new gene space that is not covered by other model species or EST sequencing projects. The raw data, as well as the full annotated assembly, are now available to the community in a dedicated web portal at http://www.corkoakdb.org.

Conclusions

This genomic resource represents the first trancriptome study in a cork producing species. It can be explored to develop new tools and approaches to understand stress responses and developmental processes in forest trees, as well as the molecular cascades underlying cork differentiation and disease response.

Transcriptomic analysis highlights epigenetic and transcriptional regulation during zygotic embryo development of Pinus pinaster

BACKGROUND

It is during embryogenesis that the plant body plan is established and the meristems responsible for all post-embryonic growth are specified. The molecular mechanisms governing conifer embryogenesis are still largely unknown. Their elucidation may contribute valuable information to clarify if the distinct features of embryo development in angiosperms and gymnosperms result from differential gene regulation. To address this issue, we have performed the first transcriptomic analysis of zygotic embryo development in a conifer species (Pinus pinaster) focusing our study in particular on regulatory genes playing important roles during plant embryo development, namely epigenetic regulators and transcription factors.

RESULTS

Microarray analysis of P. pinaster zygotic embryogenesis was performed at five periods of embryo development from early developing to mature embryos. Our results show that most changes in transcript levels occurred in the first and the last embryo stage-to-stage transitions, namely early to pre-cotyledonary embryo and cotyledonary to mature embryo. An analysis of functional categories for genes that were differentially expressed through embryogenesis highlighted several epigenetic regulation mechanisms. While putative orthologs of transcripts associated with mechanisms that target transposable elements and repetitive sequences were strongly expressed in early embryogenesis, PRC2-mediated repression of genes seemed more relevant during late embryogenesis. On the other hand, functions related to sRNA pathways appeared differentially regulated across all stages of embryo development with a prevalence of miRNA functions in mid to late embryogenesis. Identification of putative transcription factor genes differentially regulated between consecutive embryo stages was strongly suggestive of the relevance of auxin responses and regulation of auxin carriers during early embryogenesis. Such responses could be involved in establishing embryo patterning. Later in development, transcripts with homology to genes acting on modulation of auxin flow and determination of adaxial-abaxial polarity were up-regulated, as were putative orthologs of genes required for meristem formation and function as well as establishment of organ boundaries. Comparative analysis with A. thaliana embryogenesis also highlighted genes involved in auxin-mediated responses, as well as epigenetic regulation, indicating highly correlated transcript profiles between the two species.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of a time-course transcriptomic analysis of zygotic embryogenesis in a conifer. Taken together our results show that epigenetic regulation and transcriptional control related to auxin transport and response are critical during early to mid stages of pine embryogenesis and that important events during embryogenesis seem to be coordinated by putative orthologs of major developmental regulators in angiosperms.

Thermospermine levels are controlled by an auxin-dependent feedback loop mechanism in Populus xylem

Polyamines are small polycationic amines that are widespread in living organisms. Thermospermine, synthesized by thermospermine synthase ACAULIS5 (ACL5), was recently shown to be an endogenous plant polyamine. Thermospermine is critical for proper vascular development and xylem cell specification, but it is not known how thermospermine homeostasis is controlled in the xylem. We present data in the Populus model system supporting the existence of a negative feedback control of thermospermine levels in stem xylem tissues, the main site of thermospermine biosynthesis. While over-expression of the ACL5 homologue in Populus, POPACAULIS5, resulted in strong up-regulation of ACL5 expression and thermospermine accumulation in leaves, the corresponding levels in the secondary xylem tissues of the stem were similar or lower than those in the wild-type. POPACAULIS5 over-expression had a negative effect on accumulation of indole-3-acetic acid, while exogenous auxin had a positive effect on POPACAULIS5 expression, thus promoting thermospermine accumulation. Further, over-expression of POPACAULIS5 negatively affected expression of the class III homeodomain leucine zipper (HD-Zip III) transcription factor gene PttHB8, a homologue of AtHB8, while up-regulation of PttHB8 positively affected POPACAULIS5 expression. These results indicate that excessive accumulation of thermospermine is prevented by a negative feedback control of POPACAULIS5 transcript levels through suppression of indole-3-acetic acid levels, and that PttHB8 is involved in the control of POPACAULIS5 expression. We propose that this negative feedback loop functions to maintain steady-state levels of thermospermine, which is required for proper xylem development, and that it is dependent on the presence of high concentrations of endogenous indole-3-acetic acid, such as those present in the secondary xylem tissues.

Hormone interactions in xylem development: a matter of signals

Xylem provides long-distance transport of water and nutrients as well as structural support in plants. The development of the xylem tissues is modulated by several internal signals. In the last decades, the bloom of genetic and genomic tools has led to increased understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the function of the traditional plant hormones in xylem specification and differentiation. Critical functions have been assigned to novel signaling molecules, such as thermospermine. These signals do not function independently, but interact in a manner we are only now beginning to understand. We review the current knowledge of hormone signaling pathways and their crosstalk in cambial cell initiation and maintenance, and in xylem specification and differentiation.

Normalizing gene expression by quantitative PCR during somatic embryogenesis in two representative conifer species: Pinus pinaster and Picea abies

Suitable internal control genes to normalize qPCR data from different stages of embryo development and germination were identified in two representative conifer species. Clonal propagation by somatic embryogenesis has a great application potentiality in conifers. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) is widely used for gene expression analysis during somatic embryogenesis and embryo germination. No single reference gene is universal, so a systematic characterization of endogenous genes for concrete conditions is fundamental for accuracy. We identified suitable internal control genes to normalize qPCR data obtained at different steps of somatic embryogenesis (embryonal mass proliferation, embryo maturation and germination) in two representative conifer species, Pinus pinaster and Picea abies. Candidate genes included endogenous genes commonly used in conifers, genes previously tested in model plants, and genes with a lower variation of the expression along embryo development according to genome-wide transcript profiling studies. Three different algorithms were used to evaluate expression stability. The geometric average of the expression values of elongation factor-1α, α-tubulin and histone 3 in P. pinaster, and elongation factor-1α, α-tubulin, adenosine kinase and CAC in P. abies were adequate for expression studies throughout somatic embryogenesis. However, improved accuracy was achieved when using other gene combinations in experiments with samples at a single developmental stage. The importance of studies selecting reference genes to use in different tissues or developmental stages within one or close species, and the instability of commonly used reference genes, is highlighted.

Benefit of abciximab in patients with refractory unstable angina in relation to serum troponin T levels. c7E3 Fab Antiplatelet Therapy in Unstable Refractory Angina (CAPTURE) Study Investigators

BACKGROUND

In patients with refractory unstable angina, the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa-receptor antibody abciximab reduces the incidence of cardiac events before and during coronary angioplasty. We investigated whether serum troponin T levels identify patients most likely to benefit from therapy with this drug.

METHODS

Among 1265 patients with unstable angina who were enrolled in the c7E3 Fab Antiplatelet Therapy in Unstable Refractory Angina (CAPTURE) trial, serum samples drawn at the time of randomization to abciximab or placebo were available from 890 patients; we used these samples for the determination of troponin T and creatine kinase MB levels. Patients with postinfarction angina were not included.

RESULTS

Serum troponin T levels at the time of study entry were elevated (above 0.1 ng per milliliter) in 275 patients (30.9 percent). Among patients receiving placebo, the risk of death or nonfatal myocardial infarction was related to troponin T levels. The six-month cumulative event rate was 23.9 percent among patients with elevated troponin T levels, as compared with 7.5 percent among patients without elevated troponin T levels (P<0.001). Among patients treated with abciximab, the respective six-month event rates were 9.5 percent for patients with elevated troponin T levels and 9.4 percent for those without elevated levels. As compared with placebo, the relative risk of death or nonfatal myocardial infarction associated with treatment with abciximab in patients with elevated troponin T levels was 0.32 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.14 to 0.62; P=0.002). The lower event rates in patients receiving abciximab were attributable to a reduction in the rate of myocardial infarction (odds ratio, 0.23; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.12 to 0.49; P<0.001). In patients without elevated troponin T levels, there was no benefit of treatment with respect to the relative risk of death or myocardial infarction at six months (odds ratio, 1.26; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.74 to 2.31; P=0.47).

CONCLUSIONS

The serum troponin T level, which is considered to be a surrogate marker for thrombus formation, identifies a high-risk subgroup of patients with refractory unstable angina suitable for coronary angioplasty who will particularly benefit from antiplatelet treatment with abciximab.

Subxiphoid M-mode echocardiography in atrioventricular defects

M-mode echocardiograms obtained using the subxiphoid position of the transducer were compared with those obtained using the parasternal position in 21 children with atrioventricular defects. In the 16 children with complete atrioventricular defect, it was always possible to demonstrate a common valve orifice wholly occupying the space between the anterior and posterior cardiac walls with no interventricular septal tissue in the plane of the orifice. Scanning between the plane of this orifice and the ventricular cavity demonstrated a ventricular septum in all cases, separating components of the atrioventricular valve apparatus from each other, corroborating the impression that the valve was straddling the ventricular septum and, therefore, that the valve was common to both ventricles. No septal tissue was detected in scans ranging between the aortic valve and the common orifice in these 16 children. In the five children with partial atrioventricular defects, two atrioventricular orifices separated by septum could be demonstrated. The subxiphoid approach in these 21 children defined the anatomy of atrioventricular defects more clearly and more readily than the parasternal approach.