Secondary Peritonitis and Intra-Abdominal Sepsis: An Increasingly Global Disease in Search of Better Systemic Therapies

Secondary peritonitis and intra-abdominal sepsis are a global health problem. The life-threatening systemic insult that results from intra-abdominal sepsis has been extensively studied and remains somewhat poorly understood. While local surgical therapy for perforation of the abdominal viscera is an age-old therapy, systemic therapies to control the subsequent systemic inflammatory response are scarce. Advancements in critical care have led to improved outcomes in secondary peritonitis. The understanding of the effect of secondary peritonitis on the human microbiome is an evolving field and has yielded potential therapeutic targets. This review of secondary peritonitis discusses the history, classification, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and future directions of the management of secondary peritonitis. Ongoing clinical studies in the treatment of secondary peritonitis and the open abdomen are discussed.

Perforated esophageal intervention focus (PERF) study: a multi-center examination of contemporary treatment

The treatment of esophageal perforation (EP) remains a significant clinical challenge. While a number of investigators have previously documented efficient approaches, these were mostly single-center experiences reported prior to the introduction of newer technologies: specifically endoluminal stents. This study was designed to document contemporary practice in the diagnosis and management of EP at multiple institutions around the world and includes early clinical outcomes. A five-year (2009-2013) multicenter retrospective review of management and outcomes for patients with thoracic or abdominal esophageal perforation was conducted. Demographics, etiology, diagnostic modalities, treatments, subsequent early outcomes as well as morbidity and mortality were captured and analyzed. During the study period, 199 patients from 10 centers in the United States, Canada, and Europe were identified. Mechanisms of perforation included Boerhaave syndrome (60, 30.1%), iatrogenic injury (65, 32.6%), and penetrating trauma (25, 12.6%). Perforation was isolated to the thoracic segment alone in 124 (62.3%), with 62 (31.2%) involving the thoracoabdominal esophagus. Mean perforation length was 2.5 cm. Observation was selected as initial management in 65 (32.7%), with only two failures. Direct operative intervention was initial management in 65 patients (32.6%), while 29 (14.6%) underwent esophageal stent coverage. Compared to operative intervention, esophageal stent patients were significantly more likely to be older (61.3 vs. 48.3 years old, P < 0.001) and have sustained iatrogenic mechanisms of esophageal perforation (48.3% vs.15.4%). Secondary intervention requirement for patients with perforation was 33.7% overall (66). Complications included sepsis (56, 28.1%), pneumonia (34, 17.1%) and multi-organ failure (23, 11.6%). Overall mortality was 15.1% (30). In contemporary practice, diagnostic and management approaches to esophageal perforation vary widely. Despite the introduction of endoluminal strategies, it continues to carry a high risk of mortality, morbidity, and need for secondary intervention. A concerted multi-institutional, prospectively collected database is ideal for further investigation.

Intra-Abdominal Hypertension and Abdominal Compartment Syndrome after Abdominal Wall Reconstruction: Quaternary Syndromes?

Background and Aims:

Reconstruction with reconstitution of the container function of the abdominal compartment is increasingly being performed in patients with massive ventral hernia previously deemed inoperable. This situation places patients at great risk of severe intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome if organ failure ensues. Intra-abdominal hypertension and especially abdominal compartment syndrome may be devastating systemic complications with systematic and progressive organ failure and death. We thus reviewed the pathophysiology and reported clinical experiences with abnormalities of intra-abdominal pressure in the context of abdominal wall reconstruction.

Material and Methods:

Bibliographic databases (1950–2015), websites, textbooks, and the bibliographies of previously recovered articles for reports or data relating to intra-abdominal pressure, intra-abdominal hypertension, and the abdominal compartment syndrome in relation to ventral, incisional, or abdominal hernia repair or abdominal wall reconstruction.

Results:

Surgeons should thus consider and carefully measure intra-abdominal pressure and its resultant effects on respiratory parameters and function during abdominal wall reconstruction. The intra-abdominal pressure post-operatively will be a result of the new intra-peritoneal volume and the abdominal wall compliance. Strategies surgeons may utilize to ameliorate intra-abdominal pressure rise after abdominal wall reconstruction including temporizing paralysis of the musculature either temporarily or semi-permanently, pre-operative progressive pneumoperitoneum, permanently removing visceral contents, or surgically releasing the musculature to increase the abdominal container volume. In patients without complicating shock and inflammation, and in whom the abdominal wall anatomy has been so functionally adapted to maximize compliance, intra-abdominal hypertension may be transient and tolerable.

Conclusions:

Intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome in the specific setting of abdominal wall reconstruction without other complication may be considered as a quaternary situation considering the classification nomenclature of the Abdominal Compartment Society. Greater awareness of intra-abdominal pressure in abdominal wall reconstruction is required and ongoing study of these concerns is required.

Emergency Room Arteriography: An Updated Digital Technology

Background:

Emergency room arteriography (ERA) is a safe, accurate, simple and cost-effective method of defining arterial injuries. Limitations include the difficulty of evaluating limb vasculature distal to the suspected site of injury. Statscan is a novel, low-dose digital X-ray machine that can rapidly obtain a whole body image in a single scan. Our goal was to evaluate the role of Statscan technology in ERA.

Methods:

A 24 month retrospective review of all patients who underwent a Statscan assisted ERA at the Groote Schuur Hospital Trauma Unit was completed. Indications for ERA included a hemodynamically stable patient with hard signs of a vascular injury in conjunction with the clinical assessment of a threatened limb. Contraindications encompassed instability, massive bleeding or a rapidly expanding hematoma.

Results:

Ten patients underwent Statscan assisted ERA of their lower limbs. Eight had cold, pulseless limbs with impaired neurological examinations. Common femoral, superficial femoral and popliteal artery lacerations were displayed. Three patients had no identifiable injury and were observed. Seven patients underwent operative management for threatened limbs. Two had Statscan evidence of arterial emboli distal to the site of injury leading to further exploration and distal embolectomy.

Conclusions:

Statscan ERA is safe, rapid, simple and accurate. It has the advantage of providing arteriography distal to the site of injury. This directly altered patient care in 20% of cases, primarily by detecting distal arterial emboli. Thirty percent of patients with normal ERA also avoided an unnecessary operation. This study demonstrates a new role for Statscan technology.

The secondary and recurrent abdominal compartment syndrome

INTRODUCTION

The Secondary Abdominal Compartment Syndrome (SACS) refers to cases of the ACS that do not originate from the abdominopelvic region. With greater awareness of the physiologic consequences of raised intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH), cases of the SACS are being increasingly described. The prior treatment or the presence of a partially open abdomen does not preclude the ACS if the abdomen and viscera continue to swell or the clinician is not vigilant in monitoring intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). Such recurrent cases (RACS) have been defined as those which redevelop following the previous medical or surgical treatment of primary or SACS. Although there has been a diverse range of etiologies implicated, these cases seem to be linked by the common occurrence of severe shock requiring aggressive fluid resuscitation. The aim of this paper is to thus to review the historical background, awareness, definitions, pathophysiological implications and treatment options for SACS and RACS.

METHODS

This review will focus on the available literature regarding SACS and RACS. A Medline and Pubmed search was performed using the keywords; secondary abdominal compartment syndrome AND secondary AND tertiary AND recurrent AND abdominal compartment syndrome AND intra-abdominal pressure AND intra-abdominal hypertension. Bibliographies of recovered papers were hand-searched for other appropriate references. The resulting references were included in the current review on the basis of relevance and scientific merit Results: There has been remarkably little specific study of these entities outside of specific groups such as those injured by thermal or traumatic injury. The epidemiology, risk factors for, treatment of and most importantly, strategies for prevention all remain scientifically unknown and therefore based on opinion. Notable, although small, studies suggest that specific resuscitation practices may avert these conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

ACS can occur in any patient who is critically ill and subject to visceral and somatic swelling, regardless of whether the inciting pathology is extra-abdominal. The ACS may also reoccur with recurrent shock and swelling even if previous therapies had partially addressed IAH. Therefore IAP measurements should be considered a routine monitoring for the critically ill, especially those subjected to shock and requiring a subsequent resuscitation. Much further study is required to understand the differences in etiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment for all cases of the ACS.

The secondary and recurrent abdominal compartment syndrome

INTRODUCTION

The Secondary Abdominal Compartment Syndrome (SACS) refers to cases of the ACS that do not originate from the abdomino-pelvic region. With greater awareness of the physiologic consequences of raised intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH), cases of the SACS are being increasingly described. The prior treatment or the presence of a partially open abdomen does not preclude the ACS if the abdomen and viscera continue to swell or the clinician is not vigilant in monitoring intra-abdominal pressure (lAP). Such recurrent cases (RACS) have been defined as those which redevelop following the previous medical or surgical treatment of primary or SACS. Although there has been a diverse range of etiologies implicated, these cases seem to be linked by the common occurrence of severe shock requiring aggressive fluid resuscitation. The aim of this paper is to thus to review the historical background, awareness, definitions, pathophysiological implications and treatment options for SACS and RACS.

METHODS

This review will focus on the available literature regarding SACS and RACS. A Medline and Pubmed search was performed using the keywords; secondary abdominal compartment syndrome AND secondary AND tertiary AND recurrent AND abdominal compartment syndrome AND intra-abdominal pressureAND intra-abdominal hypertension. Bibliographies of recovered papers were hand-searched for other appropriate references. The resulting references were included in the current review on the basis of relevance and scientific merit

RESULTS

There has been remarkably little specific study of these entities outside of specific groups such as those injured by thermal or traumatic injury. The epidemiology, risk factors for, treatment of and most importantly, strategies for prevention all remain scientifically unknown and therefore based on opinion. Notable, although small, studies suggest that specific resuscitation practices may avert these conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

ACS can occur in any patient who is critically ill and subject to visceral and somatic swelling, regardless of whether the inciting pathology is extra-abdominal. The ACS may also reoccur with recurrent shock and swelling even if previous therapies had partially addressed IAH. Therefore IAP measurements should be considered a routine monitoring for the critically ill, especially those subjected to shock and requiring a subsequent resuscitation. Much further study is required to understand the differences in etiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment for all cases of the ACS.

Hand-held thoracic sonography for detecting post-traumatic pneumothoraces: the Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (EFAST)

BACKGROUND

Thoracic ultrasound (EFAST) has shown promise in inferring the presence of post-traumatic pneumothoraces (PTXs) and may have a particular value in identifying occult pneumothoraces (OPTXs) missed by the AP supine chest radiograph (CXR). However, the diagnostic utility of hand-held US has not been previously evaluated in this role.

METHODS

Thoracic US examinations were performed during the initial resuscitation of injured patients at a provincial trauma referral center. A high frequency linear transducer and a 2.4 kg US attached to a video-recorder were used. Real-time EFAST examinations for PTXs were blindly compared with the subsequent results of CXRs, a composite standard (CXR, chest and abdominal CT scans, clinical course, and invasive interventions), and a CT gold standard (CT only). Charts were reviewed for in-hospital outcomes and follow-up.

RESULTS

There were 225 eligible patients (207 blunt, 18 penetrating); 17 were excluded from the US examination because of battery failure or a lost probe. Sixty-five (65) PTXs were detected in 52 patients (22% of patients), 41 (63%) being occult to CXR in 33 patients (14.2% whole population, 24.6% of those with a CT). The US and CXR agreed in 186 (89.4%) of patients, EFAST was better in 16 (7.7%), and CXR better in 6 (2.9%). Compared with the composite standard, the sensitivity of EFAST was 58.9% with a likelihood ratio of a positive test (LR+) of 69.7 and a specificity of 99.1%. Comparing EFAST directly to CXR, by looking at each of 266 lung fields with the benefit of the CT gold standard, the EFAST showed higher sensitivity over CXR (48.8% versus 20.9%). Both exams had a very high specificity (99.6% and 98.7%), and very predictive LR+ (46.7 and 36.3).

CONCLUSION

EFAST has comparable specificity to CXR but is more sensitive for the detection of OPTXs after trauma. Positive EFAST findings should be addressed either clinically or with CT depending on hemodynamic stability. CT should be used if detection of all PTXs is desired.

Laparoscopic appendectomy for complicated appendicitis: an evaluation of postoperative factors

BACKGROUND

The use of laparoscopic appendectomy for complicated appendicitis is controversial. Outcomes were compared between patients who had complicated appendicitis and those who had uncomplicated appendicitis.

METHODS

Consecutive patients (n = 304) who underwent laparoscopic appendectomy were studied. Patients undergoing open appendectomies also were compared ad hoc. Analgesia use, length of hospital stay, return to activity, and complication rates for the complicated and uncomplicated appendicitis subgroups were analyzed.

RESULTS

Complete data were available for 243 patients (80%). There were no statistical differences in characteristics between the two groups. The operating times, lengths of hospital stay, return to activity times, complication rates, and analgesia requirements, both in the hospital and after discharge, were equivalent. A greater number of complicated cases required open conversion. Considering those with complicated appendicitis, the open group had a significantly longer mean hospital stay and a higher complication rate than those treated with laparoscopic appendectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

The minimally invasive laparoscopic technique is safe and efficacious. It should be the initial procedure of choice for most cases of complicated appendicitis.

Humidification of anesthetic systems for prolonged procedures

The desirability of humidification of anesthesia systems for prolonged surgical procedures has been documented previously. Dry anesthetic gases damage the ciliated epithelium and cause respiratory heat loss. Chalon suggests that from 12 to 16 mg. of water/L. of gas is necessary to prevent damage to the tracheal epithelium. This study describes a method of obtaining values of from 21.5 plus or minus 0.4 to 39.3 plus or minus 0.1 mg. of water/L. by cycling the fresh gas flow through the carbon dioxide (CO2) absorber before exposure to the patient.