Quantification and distribution of marine microdebris in the surface waters of Livingston Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica)

Microdebris are ubiquitous and the Southern Ocean is no exception. Despite the recent increment in Antarctic studies assessing this threat, there is still scarce information available. Here, we quantified the microdebris in surface water, and their distribution within two bays of Livingston Island (South Shetlands, Antarctica). The two studied bays included one with human presence and one pristine, barely visited. Microdebris pollution was found in all samples with a mean concentration of 0.264 ± 0.185 items/m3. Fibres (82.19 %) were the main item, with polyester (61.67 %) as the main plastic polymer, followed by nylon (29.54 %). No differences in the distribution pattern were observed, with microdebris being homogeneously distributed along the two bays. Our results suggest that nearshore waters of Livingston Island are prone to the accumulation and retention of microdebris. The composition of the microdebris also points to Antarctic local activities as principal contamination contributors.

A Chemo-Ecological Investigation of Dendrilla antarctica Topsent, 1905: Identification of Deceptionin and the Effects of Heat Stress and Predation Pressure on Its Terpene Profiles

Marine sponges usually host a wide array of secondary metabolites that play crucial roles in their biological interactions. The factors that influence the intraspecific variability in the metabolic profile of organisms, their production or ecological function remain generally unknown. Understanding this may help predict changes in biological relationships due to environmental variations as a consequence of climate change. The sponge Dendrilla antarctica is common in shallow rocky bottoms of the Antarctic Peninsula and is known to produce diterpenes that are supposed to have defensive roles. Here we used GC-MS to determine the major diterpenes in two populations of D. antarctica from two islands, Livingston and Deception Island (South Shetland Islands). To assess the potential effect of heat stress, we exposed the sponge in aquaria to a control temperature (similar to local), heat stress (five degrees higher) and extreme heat stress (ten degrees higher). To test for defence induction by predation pressure, we exposed the sponges to the sea star Odontaster validus and the amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus. Seven major diterpenes were isolated and identified from the samples. While six of them were already reported in the literature, we identified one new aplysulphurane derivative that was more abundant in the samples from Deception Island, so we named it deceptionin (7). The samples were separated in the PCA space according to the island of collection, with 9,11-dihydrogracilin A (1) being more abundant in the samples from Livingston, and deceptionin (7) in the samples from Deception. We found a slight effect of heat stress on the diterpene profiles of D. antarctica, with tetrahydroaplysulphurin-1 (6) and the gracilane norditerpene 2 being more abundant in the group exposed to heat stress. Predation pressure did not seem to influence the metabolite production. Further research on the bioactivity of D. antarctica secondary metabolites, and their responses to environmental changes will help better understand the functioning and fate of the Antarctic benthos.

Would Antarctic Marine Benthos Survive Alien Species Invasions? What Chemical Ecology May Tell Us

Many Antarctic marine benthic macroinvertebrates are chemically protected against predation by marine natural products of different types. Antarctic potential predators mostly include sea stars (macropredators) and amphipod crustaceans (micropredators) living in the same areas (sympatric). Recently, alien species (allopatric) have been reported to reach the Antarctic coasts, while deep-water crabs are suggested to be more often present in shallower waters. We decided to investigate the effect of the chemical defenses of 29 representative Antarctic marine benthic macroinvertebrates from seven different phyla against predation by using non-native allopatric generalist predators as a proxy for potential alien species. The Antarctic species tested included 14 Porifera, two Cnidaria, two Annelida, one Nemertea, two Bryozooa, three Echinodermata, and five Chordata (Tunicata). Most of these Antarctic marine benthic macroinvertebrates were chemically protected against an allopatric generalist amphipod but not against an allopatric generalist crab from temperate waters. Therefore, both a possible recolonization of large crabs from deep waters or an invasion of non-native generalist crab species could potentially alter the fundamental nature of these communities forever since chemical defenses would not be effective against them. This, together with the increasing temperatures that elevate the probability of alien species surviving, is a huge threat to Antarctic marine benthos.

Epiphytic diatom community structure and richness is determined by macroalgal host and location in the South Shetland Islands (Antarctica)

The marine waters around the South Shetland Islands are paramount in the primary production of this Antarctic ecosystem. With the increasing effects of climate change and the annual retreat of the ice shelf, the importance of macroalgae and their diatom epiphytes in primary production also increases. The relationships and interactions between these organisms have scarcely been studied in Antarctica, and even less in the volcanic ecosystem of Deception Island, which can be seen as a natural proxy of climate change in Antarctica because of its vulcanism, and the open marine system of Livingston Island. In this study we investigated the composition of the diatom communities in the context of their macroalgal hosts and different environmental factors. We used a non-acidic method for diatom digestion, followed by slidescanning and diatom identification by manual annotation through a web-browser-based image annotation platform. Epiphytic diatom species richness was higher on Deception Island as a whole, whereas individual macroalgal specimens harboured richer diatom assemblages on Livingston Island. We hypothesize this a possible result of a higher diversity of ecological niches in the unique volcanic environment of Deception Island. Overall, our study revealed higher species richness and diversity than previous studies of macroalgae-inhabiting diatoms in Antarctica, which could however be the result of the different preparation methodologies used in the different studies, rather than an indication of a higher species richness on Deception Island and Livingston Island than other Antarctic localities.

Effects of ocean acidification on acid-base physiology, skeleton properties, and metal contamination in two echinoderms from vent sites in Deception Island, Antarctica

Antarctic surface waters are expected to be the first to experience severe ocean acidification (OA) with carbonate undersaturation and large decreases in pH forecasted before the end of this century. Due to the long stability in environmental conditions and the relatively low daily and seasonal variations to which they are exposed, Antarctic marine organisms, especially those with a supposedly poor machinery to eliminate CO₂ and protons and with a heavily calcified skeleton like echinoderms, are hypothesized as highly vulnerable to these environmental shifts. The opportunities offered by the natural pH gradient generated by vent activities in Deception Island caldera, Western Antarctic Peninsula, were used to investigate for the first time the acid-base physiologies, the impact of OA on the skeleton and the impact of pH on metal accumulation in the Antarctic sea star Odontaster validus and sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri. The two species were sampled in four stations within the caldera, two at pH (total scale) 8.0-8.1 and two at reduced pH 7.8. Measured variables were pH, alkalinity, and dissolved inorganic carbon of the coelomic fluid; characteristic fracture force, stress and Young's modulus using Weibull statistics and Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn concentrations in the integument, gonads and digestive system. Recorded acid-base characteristics of both studied species fit in the general picture deduced from temperate and tropical sea stars and sea urchins but conditions and possibly confounding factors, principally food availability and quality, in the studied stations prevented definitive conclusions. Reduced seawater pH 7.8 and metals had almost no impact on the skeleton mechanical properties of the two investigated species despite very high Cd concentrations in O. validus integument. Reduced pH was correlated to increased contamination by most metals but this relation was weak. Translocation and caging experiments taking into account food parameters are proposed to better understand future processes linked to ocean acidification and metal contamination in Antarctic echinoderms.

Bioactive Compounds from Marine Heterobranchs

The natural products of heterobranch molluscs display a huge variability both in structure and in their bioactivity. Despite the considerable lack of information, it can be observed from the recent literature that this group of animals possesses an astonishing arsenal of molecules from different origins that provide the molluscs with potent chemicals that are ecologically and pharmacologically relevant. In this review, we analyze the bioactivity of more than 450 compounds from ca. 400 species of heterobranch molluscs that are useful for the snails to protect themselves in different ways and/or that may be useful to us because of their pharmacological activities. Their ecological activities include predator avoidance, toxicity, antimicrobials, antifouling, trail-following and alarm pheromones, sunscreens and UV protection, tissue regeneration, and others. The most studied ecological activity is predation avoidance, followed by toxicity. Their pharmacological activities consist of cytotoxicity and antitumoral activity; antibiotic, antiparasitic, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activity; and activity against neurodegenerative diseases and others. The most studied pharmacological activities are cytotoxicity and anticancer activities, followed by antibiotic activity. Overall, it can be observed that heterobranch molluscs are extremely interesting in regard to the study of marine natural products in terms of both chemical ecology and biotechnology studies, providing many leads for further detailed research in these fields in the near future.

Invasive marine species discovered on non-native kelp rafts in the warmest Antarctic island

Antarctic shallow coastal marine communities were long thought to be isolated from their nearest neighbours by hundreds of kilometres of deep ocean and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The discovery of non-native kelp washed up on Antarctic beaches led us to question the permeability of these barriers to species dispersal. According to the literature, over 70 million kelp rafts are afloat in the Southern Ocean at any one time. These living, floating islands can play host to a range of passenger species from both their original coastal location and those picked in the open ocean. Driven by winds, currents and storms towards the coast of the continent, these rafts are often cited as theoretical vectors for the introduction of new species into Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands. We found non-native kelps, with a wide range of "hitchhiking" passenger organisms, on an Antarctic beach inside the flooded caldera of an active volcanic island. This is the first evidence of non-native species reaching the Antarctic continent alive on kelp rafts. One passenger species, the bryozoan Membranipora membranacea, is found to be an invasive and ecologically harmful species in some cold-water regions, and this is its first record from Antarctica. The caldera of Deception Island provides considerably milder conditions than the frigid surrounding waters and it could be an ideal location for newly introduced species to become established. These findings may help to explain many of the biogeographic patterns and connections we currently see in the Southern Ocean. However, with the impacts of climate change in the region we may see an increase in the range and number of organisms capable of surviving both the long journey and becoming successfully established.

Exploring the pathology of an epidermal disease affecting a circum-Antarctic sea star

Over the past decade, unusual mortality outbreaks have decimated echinoderm populations over broad geographic regions, raising awareness globally of the importance of investigating such events. Echinoderms are key components of marine benthos for top-down and bottom-up regulations of plants and animals; population declines of these individuals can have significant ecosystem-wide effects. Here we describe the first case study of an outbreak affecting Antarctic echinoderms and consisting of an ulcerative epidermal disease affecting ~10% of the population of the keystone asteroid predator Odontaster validus at Deception Island, Antarctica. This event was first detected in the Austral summer 2012–2013, coinciding with unprecedented high seawater temperatures and increased seismicity. Histological analyses revealed epidermal ulceration, inflammation, and necrosis in diseased animals. Bacterial and fungal alpha diversity was consistently lower and of different composition in lesioned versus unaffected tissues (32.87% and 16.94% shared bacterial and fungal operational taxonomic units OTUs respectively). The microbiome of healthy stars was more consistent across individuals than in diseased specimens suggesting microbial dysbiosis, especially in the lesion fronts. Because these microbes were not associated with tissue damage at the microscopic level, their contribution to the development of epidermal lesions remains unclear. Our study reveals that disease events are reaching echinoderms as far as the polar regions thereby highlighting the need to develop a greater understanding of the microbiology and physiology of marine diseases and ecosystems health, especially in the era of global warming.

Experimental evidence of chemical defence mechanisms in Antarctic bryozoans

Bryozoans are among the most abundant and diverse members of the Antarctic benthos, however the role of bioactive metabolites in ecological interactions has been scarcely studied. To extend our knowledge about the chemical ecology of Antarctic bryozoans, crude ether extracts (EE) and butanol extracts (BE) obtained from two Antarctic common species (Cornucopina pectogemma and Nematoflustra flagellata), were tested for antibacterial and repellent activities. The extracts were screened for quorum quenching and antibacterial activities against four Antarctic bacterial strains (Bacillus aquimaris, Micrococcus sp., Oceanobacillus sp. and Paracoccus sp.). The Antarctic amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus and the sea star Odontaster validus were selected as sympatric predators to perform anti-predatory and substrate preference assays. No quorum quenching activity was detected in any of the extracts, while all EE exhibited growth inhibition towards at least one bacterium strain. Although the species were not repellent against the sea star, they caused repellence to the amphipods in both extracts, suggesting that defence activities against predation derive from both lipophilic and hydrophilic metabolites. In the substrate preference assays, one EE and one BE deriving from different specimens of the species C. pectogemma were active. This study reveals intraspecific variability of chemical defences and supports the fact that chemically mediated interactions are common in Antarctic bryozoans as means of protection against fouling and predation.

Macroinvertebrate communities from the shallow soft-bottoms of Deception Island (Southern Ocean): A paradise for opportunists

Deception Island (South Shetland Islands) is an atypical spot in its Antarctic context, being a still active volcano with a submerged caldera. Although the sea-floor of its enclosed bay, Port Foster, has been extensively studied from 40 m down, little is known about the macrozoobenthic composition of its shallower areas. The aim of this study was to characterize the so far unexplored soft-bottom marine macroinvertebrate communities living within the first few meters depth in Port Foster. Eight sampling stations were selected, and three replicates per station and depth (5 and 15 m) were collected by SCUBA diving using 0.008 m^-2 corers. Six clusters of samples were distinguished, showing a high variability in the composition of the shallow-water macrofauna. This heterogeneity did not appear to be related to the proximity of the sites to the open sea (entrance of the caldera) or depth, nor to the sediment type or the organic matter content. Overall, the assemblages within each cluster were generally dominated by highly abundant opportunistic species, including the annelids Capitella perarmata, Mesospio moorei, Leitoscoloplos kerguelensis, Apistobranchus glacierae, and Tharyx cincinnata, the amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus, and the bivalve Aequiyoldia eightsii. The remarkably high densities reported in several stations, suggest that the shallow-water environment of Port Foster is highly productive. In light of these results, we propose a general trophic web for the shallow waters of Port Foster linking the unusually high densities of macroinvertebrates with the also high occurrence of megafaunal echinoderms present in this area.

Gersemiols A-C and Eunicellol A, Diterpenoids from the Arctic Soft Coral Gersemia fruticosa

Three new diterpenes named gersemiols A-C (1-3) and a new eunicellane diterpene, eunicellol A (4), have been isolated together with the known sesquiterpene (+)-α-muurolene (5) from the Arctic soft coral Gersemia fruticosa. The name gersemiane was assigned to the rare and unnamed diterpene skeleton of compounds 1-3 corresponding to 4-isopropyl-1,5,8a-trimethyltetradecahydrophenanthrene. The chemical structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis (HR-ESIMS, 1D and 2D NMR) as well as coupling constant calculations for the determination of the relative configurations. All compounds were tested for their antimicrobial activity against several bacteria and fungi and eunicellol A was found to exhibit moderate and selective antibacterial activity.

Antifouling activity in some benthic Antarctic invertebrates by "in situ" experiments at Deception Island, Antarctica

Competition for space is a remarkable ecological force, comparable to predation, producing a strong selective pressure on benthic invertebrates. Some invertebrates, thus, possess antimicrobial compounds to reduce surface bacterial growth. Antimicrobial inhibition is the first step in avoiding being overgrown by other organisms, which may have a negative impact in feeding, respiration, reproduction … The in situ inhibition of bacterial biofilm was used here as an indicator of antifouling activity by testing hydrophilic extracts of twelve Antarctic invertebrates. Using two different approaches (genetics and confocal techniques) different levels of activity were found in the tested organisms. In fact, differences within body parts of the studied organisms were determined, in agreement with the Optimal Defense Theory. Eight out of 15 extracts tested had negative effects on fouling after 28 days submerged in Antarctic waters. Thus, although chemical defenses may be quite species-specific in their ecological roles, these results suggest that different chemical strategies exist to deal with space competition.

Antimicrobial activity of Antarctic bryozoans: an ecological perspective with potential for clinical applications

The antimicrobial activity of Antarctic bryozoans and the ecological functions of the chemical compounds involved remain largely unknown. To determine the significant ecological and applied antimicrobial effects, 16 ether and 16 butanol extracts obtained from 13 different bryozoan species were tested against six Antarctic (including Psychrobacter luti, Shewanella livingstonensis and 4 new isolated strains) and two bacterial strains from culture collections (Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus). Results from the bioassays reveal that all ether extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity against some bacteria. Only one butanol extract produced inhibition, indicating that antimicrobial compounds are mainly lipophilic. Ether extracts of the genus Camptoplites inhibited the majority of bacterial strains, thus indicating a broad-spectrum of antimicrobial activity. Moreover, most ether extracts presented activities against bacterial strains from culture collections, suggesting the potential use of these extracts as antimicrobial drugs against pathogenic bacteria.