- Invited Review - Reproductive technologies needed for the generation of precise gene-edited pigs in the pathways from laboratory to farm

Gene editing (GE) offers a new breeding technique (NBT) of sustainable value to animal agriculture. There are 3 GE working sites covering 5 feasible pathways to generate GE pigs along with the crucial intervals of GE/genotyping, microinjection/electroporation, induced pluripotent stem cells, somatic cell nuclear transfer, cryopreservation, and nonsurgical embryo transfer. The extension of NBT in the new era of pig breeding depends on the synergistic effect of GE and reproductive biotechnologies; the outcome relies not only on scientific due diligence and operational excellence but also on the feasibility of application on farms to improve sustainability.

Lessening of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus susceptibility in piglets after editing of the CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid hydroxylase gene with CRISPR/Cas9 to nullify N-glycolylneuraminic acid expression

The porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) devastates the health of piglets but may not infect piglets whose CMP-N-glycolylneuraminic acid hydroxylase (CMAH) gene is mutated (knockouts, KO) by using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing techniques. This hypothesis was tested by using KO piglets that were challenged with PEDV. Two single-guide RNAs targeting the CMAH gene and Cas9 mRNA were microinjected into the cytoplasm of newly fertilized eggs. Four live founders generated and proven to be biallelic KO, lacking detectable N-glycolylneuraminic acid (NGNA). The founders were bred, and homozygous offspring were obtained. Two-day-old (in exps. I, n = 6, and III, n = 15) and 3-day-old (in exp. II, n = 9) KO and wild-type (WT, same ages in respective exps.) piglets were inoculated with TCID₅₀ 1x10³ PEDV and then fed 20 mL of infant formula (in exps. I and II) or sow’s colostrum (in exp. III) every 4 hours. In exp. III, the colostrum was offered 6 times and was then replaced with Ringer/5% glucose solution. At 72 hours post-PEDV inoculation (hpi), the animals either deceased or euthanized were necropsied and intestines were sampled. In all 3 experiments, the piglets showed apparent outward clinical manifestations suggesting that infection occurred despite the CMAH KO. In exp. I, all 6 WT piglets and only 1 of 6 KO piglets died at 72 hpi. Histopathology and immunofluorescence staining showed that the villus epithelial cells of WT piglets were severely exfoliated, but only moderate exfoliation and enterocyte vacuolization was observed in KO piglets. In exp. II, delayed clinical symptoms appeared, yet the immunofluorescence staining/histopathologic inspection (I/H) scores of the two groups differed little. In exp. III, the animals exhibited clinical and pathological signs after inoculation similar to those in exp. II. These results suggest that porcine CMAH KO with nullified NGNA expression are not immune to PEDV but that this KO may lessen the severity of the infection and delay its occurrence.

Germline Competent Pluripotent Mouse Stem Cells Generated by Plasmid Vectors

We developed nonintegrated methods to reprogram mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) using pig pOct4, pSox2, and pc-Myc as well as human hKLF4, hAID, and hTDG that were carried by plasmid vectors. The 4F method employed pOct4, pSox2, pc-Myc, and hKLF4 to derive iPSC clones with naive embryonic stem cell (ESC)-like morphology. These 4F clones expressed endogenous mouse Nanog protein and could generate chimeras. In addition to the four conventional reprogramming factors used in the 4F method, hAID and hTDG were utilized in a 6F method to increase the conversion efficiency of reprogramming by approximately five-fold. One of the 6F plasmid derived iPSC (piPSC) clones was shown to be germline transmission competent.

Application of xenogeneic anti-canine distemper virus antibodies in treatment of canine distemper puppies

OBJECTIVE

The clinical feasibility of passive immunotherapy has not been demonstrated in dogs naturally infected with canine distemper. In this study, porcine anti-canine distemper virus IgG and F(ab')₂ antibody fragments were used to treat infected puppies.

METHODS

A total of 41 naturally infected puppies (age Äsix months) exhibiting severe respiratory signs, but lacking neurological signs, were enrolled in the study. Twenty-five puppies were treated with a combination of IgG or F(ab')₂ antibody fragments (Group 1) and supportive therapy and 16 puppies received routine supportive care only (Group 2).

RESULTS

The survival rate of dogs in Group 1 (19/25; 76%) was significantly higher than that in Group 2 (5/16; 31·3%) (P<0·05). During the therapy, 8 of the 25 dogs (32%) in Group 1 developed neurological signs versus 12 of the 16 dogs (75%) in Group 2 (P<0·05). Adverse reactions were limited to elevated body temperature in dogs that received IgG antibodies.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Porcine anti-canine distemper virus antibodies improved survival in puppies affected with canine distemper with minimal adverse effects. Therefore, this therapy could be considered for treatment of endangered animal species infected with canine distemper virus.

Useful prediction of ureteral calculi visibility on abdominal radiographs based on calculi characteristics on unenhanced helical CT and CT scout radiographs

AIMS

To determine whether visibility of ureteral calculi on plain radiographs of the kidney, ureter and bladder (KUB) could be predicted based on characteristics on unenhanced helical computed tomography (UHCT) and CT scout radiographs (CTSR).

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-three patients diagnosed with 140 ureteral calculi on UHCT, had undergone both UHCT and KUB within 24 h and before calculus passage or intervention were included. The visibility of ureteral calculi on KUB and CTSR as well as their sizes, locations and densities on UHCT were recorded. The association of CTSR/UHCT characteristics of ureteral calculi and their visibility on KUB were analysed. Multivariate analyses using logistic regression were computed as predictors for visibility on KUB.

RESULTS

Of the 140 calculi, 56 (40%) and 98 (70%) were visible on CTSR and KUB respectively. All calculi detectable on CTSR were also visible on KUB. Multivariate analyses of the 84 CTSR undetectable calculi revealed that non-middle ureteral location and higher calculi densities on UHCT were significant predictors of visibility on KUB. All non-middle ureteral calculi with density > 800 Hounsfield units (HU) were visible on KUB. Of 23 calculi in the middle ureter or with density < 200 HU, 17 (74%) were invisible on KUB.

CONCLUSIONS

Ureteral calculi characteristics on UHCT and CTSR are useful for predicting their visibility on KUB. Patients with visible calculi on CTSR or non-middle ureteral calculi with density > 800 HU are suitable for KUB to follow-up calculi status.

FSH-sensitive murine sertoli cell lines immortalized by human telomerase gene hTERT express the androgen receptor in response to TNF-alpha stimulation

Sertoli cells are regulated by follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone secreted by the pituitary gland and Leydig cells, respectively. However, the expression of the FSH receptor and androgen receptor were undetectable in both primary cultured Sertoli cells and Sertoli cell lines immortalized by SV40 large T antigen. Two Sertoli cell lines, B6Sc-2 and B6Sc-3, were established from the testis of 19-day-old C57BL/6 mice testis by immortalization with human telomere reverse transcriptase. These Sertoli cell lines expressed FSH receptors and the total phosphoprotein patterns were converted after FSH treatment. Additionally, immunological methods demonstrated that these cell lines expressed characteristic Sertoli cell proteins, such as tyrosine-tubulin, vimentin and stem cell factor (SCF). Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) also indicates that they express Sertoli specific mRNAs, such as Amh, claudin11 and ZO-1. The expression of the androgen receptor in both B6Sc-2 and B6Sc-3 cells could be induced by TNF-alpha treatment. The present results indicate that these Sertoli cell lines are more native than others and may thus provide useful tools for in vitro studies.

Prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling of mucopolysaccharidosis type II (Hunter syndrome)

We present prenatal diagnosis of mucopolysaccharidosis type II (MPS II) (Hunter syndrome) and demonstrate marked mucopolysaccharide deposition in multiple vital organs in a 22-gestational-week affected fetus. Level II ultrasound showed cardiomegaly and hepatomegaly. Histological examinations of the fetal vital organs manifested marked mucopolysaccharide deposition. We suggest that any therapeutic approach and counseling for prenatally diagnosed MPS II should consider the early signs of in utero marked mucopolysaccharide storage.

Association of serum protein levels with egg productivity in Taiwan red-feathered country chickens

This study investigated the relationship between serum protein levels and egg productivity in Taiwan red-feathered country chickens (TRFCC). The total egg numbers of TRFCC (n=157) were recorded from 25 to 48 weeks of age. Serum samples were collected at 24 and 35 weeks of age, then classified by total egg number into four groups according to mean+/-1S.D. Serum X protein levels were evaluated by protein chip technology and with an insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) immunoassay. Other serum proteins (apolipoprotein A-I, ovotransferrin and vitellogenin) were found at different levels between the most productive and the least productive groups of TRFCC, were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and were quantified by age. The results showed that levels of vitellogenin were positively correlated with total egg number at 24 and at 35 weeks old (p<0.01). Levels of apolipoprotein A-I and an IGF-1-related marker (termed X protein) in serum at 35 weeks old were correlated with total egg number (p<0.01). Serum ovotransferrin levels remained constant regardless of total egg number. To investigate the concentration differences among the four groups of TRFCC, serum protein levels of each group were analyzed by one-way ANOVA. The results showed that those protein levels, except for ovotransferrin, in the least productive group significantly differed from the other three groups (p<0.05). Although the correlation between those protein levels and the total egg number was not significant at the time of initial egg production, the selection strategy of those protein levels at later stages of egg production should provide a screening model to improve selection.

Prostatic stromal sarcoma in a young adult: a case report

Prostate stromal sarcoma is quite rare, comprising only 0.1-0.2% of all prostate cancers. Here, we report one case of prostate stromal sarcoma in a 38-year-old man. Initially, the patient suffered from lower urinary tract symptoms, and intravenous pyelography showed a larger filling defect in the bladder. Transrectal ultrasound showed a huge heterogenous mass between the bladder and rectum. Abdominal computed tomography revealed prostate tumor with local invasion. Radical cystoprostatectomy with ileal conduit was performed; pathology revealed high-grade prostate stromal sarcoma with invasion to the right seminal vesicle and urethra. This article describes the pathology and immunohistrochemical features of this case and briefly reviews the literature.

A reference map and identification of porcine testis proteins using 2-DE and MS

The development of the testis is essential for maturation of male mammals. A complete understanding of proteins expressed in the testis will provide biological information on many reproductive dysfunctions in males. The purposes of this study were to apply a proteomic approach to investigating protein composition and to establish a 2-D PAGE reference map for porcine testis proteins. MALDI-TOF MS was performed for protein identification. When 1 mg of total proteins was assayed by 2-D PAGE and stained with colloidal CBB, more than 400 proteins with a pI of pH 3-10 and M(r) of 10-200 kDa could be detected. Protein expression varied among individuals, with CV between 4.7 and 131.5%. A total of 447 protein spots were excised for identification, among which 337 spots were identified by searching the mass spectra against the NCBInr database. Identification of the remaining 110 spots was unsuccessful. A 2-D PAGE-based porcine testis protein database has been constructed on the basis of the results and will be published on the WWW. This database should be valuable for investigating the developmental biology and pathology of porcine testis.

Negative effect of heat sterilization on the free amino acid concentrations in infant formula

Infant formulas are often heat sterilized in hospitals where water contamination or nosocomial infection is a concern, but there are few studies of the effect of high heat on the nutritional value of infant formula. In particular, the effect of heat sterilization on free amino acid (FAA) concentrations is seldom discussed. In view of the importance of these nutrients for infant growth, we investigated the FAA concentrations of infant formula after heat sterilization. Powdered infant formulas were reconstituted with hot water (80 degrees C) in glass bottles and placed in an autoclave for 5 min at 105 degrees C and 5600 kg/m2 of pressure. Additional samples of formula were prepared by conventional methods to serve as controls. After autoclaving, we measured the FAA concentrations with ion exchange chromatography. The results were compared with those obtained after conventional preparation. We found a 19.5% lower amount of total protein after autoclaving compared with conventional preparation. Concentrations of total FAA were significantly lower after autoclaving (696.5 +/- 101.4 vs 899.4 +/- 152.2 micromol/l, P = 0.01). The concentrations of individual amino acids were also lower in autoclaved infant formulas, with differences ranging from -4.1 to 71.5% (mean 22.6%). Concentrations of certain amino acids were more than 30% lower, such as valine (71.5%), citrulline (61.1%), glutamine (60.6%), ethanolamine (54%), and lysine (39.2%). Both essential and nonessential amino acids were similarly affected by autoclaving, 28.17 and 27.13%, respectively, lower than in controls (P = 0.37). The concentration of ammonia was significantly higher after autoclaving (645.2 +/- 76.2 vs 393.2 +/-140.7 micromol/l, P = 0.0003). However, the urea level was significantly lower after autoclaving than after conventional preparation (1110.8 +/- 162.7 vs 1426.5 +/- 209.5 micromol/l, P = 0.0004). The accumulation of ammonia may reflect degradation of protein and amino acids. Autoclaving clearly results in decreased concentrations of FAA in infant formula. The increased concentration of ammonia after autoclaving is of concern if it leads to deleterious effects.

Epstein-Barr virus infection in urothelial transitional cell carcinoma tissues

OBJECTIVE

To explore a possible correlation of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection with urothelial tumours, as the mutation of oncogenes, inactivation of tumour suppressor genes and viral infections may be important in the tumorigenesis of urothelial tumours, and EBV has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of lymphoproliferative disorders and several epithelial neoplasms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In all, 104 surgical specimens of transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) were obtained from urological operating rooms, fixed in 10% buffered formalin and processed for in situ hybridization using DNA probes, to locate the signal of EBV-encoded RNAs (EBERs). Immunohistochemistry with antibodies against CD20 and EBV-encoded latent membrane protein-1 (LMP-1) was used on EBER-positive tumour specimens.

RESULTS

Thirty-one tumour specimens were positive for EBER hybridization in 100 evaluable specimens. Of these positive specimens, 21 were positive in both the infiltrating B lymphocytes and TCC tumour cells, seven only in B lymphocytes and three only in TCC cells. Of 31 EBER-positive tumour tissues, 26 (84%) had LMP-1, suggesting that EBER is more sensitive than LMP-1 for detecting EBV infection.

CONCLUSION

There is a strong association between EBV infection and a significant proportion of primary urothelial TCC tumour cells.

Successful salvage treatment of recurrent endometrial cancer with bulky central tumor and extensive lymph node metastasis. A case report

Recurrent endometrial cancer with both local and distant metastasis is very difficult to treat. A 55-year-old endometrial adenocarcinoma patient with bulky central recurrences and pelvic and inguinal lymph node metastases underwent laparotomy and paraaortic, pelvic and inguinal lymphadenectomy followed by concurrent chemoradiation (with cisplatin) to the paraaortic and inguinal lymph nodes as well as the whole pelvis. Neck and mediastinal lymph node metastasis emerged during treatment. Neck-node radiation and epirubicin was added followed by paclitaxel and carboplatin. Complete remission was achieved. Ten months later, isolated central re-recurrence happened and total pelvic exenteration was performed. The patient has survived without further recurrence for more than five years after the exenteration. Therefore, a multimodality approach with a combination of radical resection (even pelvic exenteration), radiotherapy and chemotherapy could be offered to well-selected patients with recurrent endometrial cancer despite out-of-field progression during therapy and in-field local failure to initial salvage treatment.

Identification and characterization of mutations underlying Sanfilippo syndrome type A (mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA)

Sanfilippo syndrome type A (mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA; MPS IIIA) is caused by a deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme haparan N-sulphatase (NS). The genomic DNA segments of the NS gene from two Chinese patients with MPS IIIA were amplified by polymerase chain reaction, followed by DNA sequencing to study the molecular lesions. Four mutations (i.e. N42K, D235N, P293S and R377C) and five polymorphisms (i.e. IVS2-72A --> G, IVS2-26T --> C, IVS5+17C --> T, IVS5-37GC --> CTGT and R456H) were identified. Transfection of COS-7 cells with cDNA mutagenized to the corresponding mutations did not yield active enzyme, demonstrating the deleterious nature of the mutations. Western blot analysis revealed a 62-kDa precursor and 56-kDa mature forms for cells transfected with wild-type and polymorphic R456H enzymes. For cells transfected with mutant enzymes, the reduction in precursor and mature forms suggests an increased degradation of the mutant enzymes. The polymorphic DNA haplotype of the NS gene was analysed in 52 unrelated subjects. All five polymorphisms were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The strong non-random association among the five polymorphisms suggests little or no recombination in the NS gene.

Solid variant of papillary renal cell carcinoma

Solid variant of papillary renal cell carcinoma is a newly recognized renal epithelial neoplasm. We encounter a case of a 36-year-old male patient with a solitary right renal tumor. The tumor is composed of solid sheets of small uniform cell with intervening micronodules, resembling the glomeruloid bodies in a metanephric adenoma. Abortive papillae rather than typical papillary formations are found in the micronodules. Furthermore, the cells in these micronodules demonstrate more cellular atypia with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm comparing to the intervening cells. Both types of neoplastic cells are immunoreactive for epithelial membrane antigen, cytokeratins 7 and 17, but not vimentin and 34 beta E12. The features of the tumor are consistent with solid variant of papillary renal cell carcinoma. Solid variant of papillary renal cell carcinoma is similar in certain morphological and genetic features to metanephric adenoma, suggesting that they might be related.

The zinc finger domain of Tzfp binds to the tbs motif located at the upstream flanking region of the Aie1 (aurora-C) kinase gene

Our previous studies showed that Aie1 (aurora-C), is a novel testis kinase belonging to the aurora kinase family (). In this report, we describe a testis zinc finger protein (Tzfp) that binds to the upstream flanking sequence of the Aie1 gene. The mouse Tzfp gene, mapped to chromosome 7 B2-B3, encodes a 465-amino acid transcription factor containing a conserved N-terminal BTB/POZ domain and three C-terminal PLZF-like C(2)H(2) zinc fingers. The zinc finger domain of Tzfp binds to the TGTACAGTGT motif (Tzfp binding site, termed tbs) located at the upstream flanking sequence of the Aie1 gene by gel mobility shift, DNase I footprinting, and competition analyses. When the C-terminal zinc fingers of Tzfp were fused to the transactivation domain of VP16, the chimera activated transcription of a reporter construct containing multiple copies of the tbs. In contrast, the same chimera did not activate the reporter gene when an essential nucleotide fifth C was mutated to A at the tbs. Furthermore, we showed that the N-terminal BTB/POZ domain of TZFP has a repressor activity. Taken together, our results indicate that Tzfp recognizes a sequence-specific motif (tbs) and may play a role in the regulation of the genes carrying the tbs.

Analysis of a murine anti-ganglioside GD2 monoclonal antibody expressing both IgG2a and IgG3 isotypes: monoclonality, apoptosis triggering, and activation of cellular cytotoxicity on human melanoma cells

In this study we have documented a hybridoma secreting an unusual MAb, which expresses both IgG3 and IgG2a subclasses with a lambda-light chain. How this dual expression of isotypes was exactly brought about is not clear. To resolve this problem, it will have to wait the complete sequence analysis the heavy chain gene of MAb 9C4. Although the expression of IgG2a was about 50% that of IgG3, antibody titration studies showed the major binding affinity of MAb 9C4 to GD3-positive cells being mostly contributed by the IgG3 rather than IgG2a part of the antibody. This antibody could induce apoptosis in melanoma cells in 10-15% of cells in vitro, but the generality of this phenomenon is yet to be confirmed by the use of different cell targets and different anti-GD2 MAbs other than 9C4. Aside from the demonstrated indirect killing mechanisms of many anti-GD2 MAbs through CDC and ADCC, MAb 9C4 induction of apoptosis represents an alternative mechanism of tumor cell killing, by which direct killing of anti-GD2 antibody takes its effect. This apoptotic effect was demonstrated for the first time with an anti-ganglioside monoclonal antibody. From the therapeutic point of view, the cytolytic activity of MAb 9C4-targeted ADCC/LAK killing against GD2-positive tumor cells to be more effective than that of LAK alone and a possibility for dendritic cells to effectively acquire antigen through pulsing with MAb-induced apoptotic cells are both of great clinical importance. Further studies are warranted aiming at elucidating the molecular basis of bi-isotypic specificity and aberrant isotype switching, molecular pathway of anti-GD2 antibody-induced apoptosis, and ways to improve clinical utility of this unusual hybridoma/MAb 9C4.

Diagnostic screening for mucopolysaccharidoses by the dimethylmethylene blue method and two dimensional electrophoresis

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of a mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) can be achieved by non-enzymatic screening methods, including two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-D EP), and the dimethylmethylene blue (DMB) method. However, the confirmation of MPS diagnosis is difficult to achieve in Taiwan due to the shortage of a well-established MPS diagnostic service. In this article, we introduce the MPS screening protocols we have already established, and also illustrate the interpretation of 2-D EP result for MPS typing determination.

METHODS

Thirty-seven patients with different types of MPS were analyzed by 2-D EP and the DMB method. They were 4 with MPS I (Hurler), 15 with MPS II (Hunter), 10 with MPS III (Sanfilippo), 5 with MPS IV (Morquio), and 3 with MPS VI (Maroteaux-Lamy).

RESULTS

The electrophoretic patterns of the affected glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in different MPS were illustrated, which were the basis of MPS diagnosis. The DMB results showed a significant difference between these diseases, and the dimethylmethylene blue/creatinine (DMB/CRE) ratio of Hunter Syndrome was markedly greater than those of the Sanfilippo, Hurler, and Maroteaux-Lamy Syndrome, successively. The 2-D EP is also applicable for MPS prenatal diagnosis. One cell-free amniotic fluid with suspected Hunter Syndrome was analyzed by 2-D EP, and the results excluded the possibility of MPS which was confirmed by enzymatic study.

CONCLUSIONS

The 2-D EP provides a good separation of urinary GAG, and the DMB method gives an estimation of the GAG concentration in the urine. Both of the methods are specific, sensitive, and easy to perform for MPS screening and diagnosis.

Genomic organization, expression, and chromosome localization of a third aurora-related kinase gene, Aie1

We previously reported two novel testis-specific serine/threonine kinases, Aie1 (mouse) and AIE2 (human), that share high amino acid identities with the kinase domains of fly aurora and yeast Ipl1. Here, we report the entire intron-exon organization of the Aie1 gene and analyze the expression patterns of Aie1 mRNA during testis development. The mouse Aie1 gene spans approximately 14 kb and contains seven exons. The sequences of the exon-intron boundaries of the Aie1 gene conform to the consensus sequences (GT/AG) of the splicing donor and acceptor sites of most eukaryotic genes. Comparative genomic sequencing revealed that the gene structure is highly conserved between mouse Aie1 and human AIE2. However, much less homology was found in the sequence outside the kinase-coding domains. The Aie1 locus was mapped to mouse chromosome 7A2-A3 by fluorescent in situ hybridization. Northern blot analysis indicates that Aie1 mRNA likely is expressed at a low level on day 14 and reaches its plateau on day 21 in the developing postnatal testis. RNA in situ hybridization indicated that the expression of the Aie1 transcript was restricted to meiotically active germ cells, with the highest levels detected in spermatocytes at the late pachytene stage. These findings suggest that Aie1 plays a role in spermatogenesis.

Adult Wilms' tumor presenting as acute abdomen with elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase-4 and -5 isoenzymes: case report

Wilms' tumor, an embryonic neoplasm, is the most frequent renal tumor in childhood but is rare in adults. The prognosis of adult Wilms' tumor is worse than pediatric Wilms' tumor. The preoperative diagnosis of adult Wilms' tumor is extremely difficult to make because diagnostic imaging techniques, such as intravenous pyelography, computed tomography, ultrasound, renal angiography, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, only confirm the presence of a renal mass. Diagnosis usually depends on histological characteristics, such as the presence of blastemic, epithelial, and mesenchymal components. A 27-year-old female presented with acute abdomen and with elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) at 212 U/l (normal range: 47-140), and 2 of 5 LDH isoenzymes, namely LDH-4 at 13.6% (normal range: 6.8%-10.2%) and LDH-5 at 20% (normal range: 6.5%-9.7%). In this patient, stage I Wilms' tumor was managed by radical nephrectomy. The levels of LDH returned to its normal range. In conclusion, in cases of acute abdomen with a renal mass in young adults, the possibility of Wilms' tumor should be considered. Serum LDH and its isoenzymes, LDH-4 and LDH-5, could be used as tumor markers for either differential diagnosis or monitoring the response of treatment.

Immunobiologic, cytogenetic and drug response features of a newly established cell line (SCRC-1) from renal small cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

We describe the establishment and preliminary characterization of a cell line designated SCRC-1, which was derived from a primary renal small cell carcinoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Continuous cultures of a primary stage IVa renal small cell carcinoma and a xenograft in nude mice derived therefrom were characterized by immunohistology, electron microscopy, immunofluorescence/flow cytometry, cytogenetic analysis, and an in vitro drug resistance assay.

RESULTS

SCRC-1 cells were reactive with antibodies to NSE, chromogranin-A, bombesin, Bcl-2, CD44s, CD44v6, CD44v7 to 8, vimentin and S100 protein (predominantly beta-subunit), and were unreactive with antibodies to EMA, CD54, EGFR(R1), URO-5, URO-7, URO-8 and URO-10. A similar immunoprofile was also found in both the primary tumor and the xenograft. Cytogenetic analysis revealed the following common clonal aberrations in all 50 metaphases analyzed: 45, XX, t (X;10;18) (p11;p11;q11), -der(18)t(X;10;18), indicating the clonal nature of this neoplasm. SCRC-1 cells showed low drug resistance to cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, gemcitabine and fluorouracil, intermediate resistance to carmustine and mitomycin-C, and extreme resistance to cisplatin.

CONCLUSION

We have documented the initial characterization of SCRC-1, which may be the first cell line reported to be derived from a primary small cell carcinoma of the kidney. This cell line can be used for further studies uncovering the biology and histogenesis of this rare cancer and delineating differences among small cell carcinomas of the kidney and other histological types.

The role of free to total prostate-specific antigen ratio for prostate cancer in screening patients with total serum levels between 4 and 20 ng/ml

BACKGROUND

We retrospectively tried to determine if the free to total prostate-specific antigen (f/t PSA) ratio could improve the specificity of PSA in prostate cancer screening of patients with total serum levels between 4 and 20 ng/ml.

METHODS

Two hundred ninety-five patients with serum PSA levels from 4 to 20 ng/ml had undergone sextant prostate needle biopsy. Each patient had no prior history of prostate cancer, acute urine retention, or prostatitis. Prebiopsy free PSA values were measured in 155 patients. Total PSA levels were determined with the AxSYM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Free PSA levels were measured with the AxSYM microparticle enzyme immunoassay.

RESULTS

Mean f/t PSA ratios were 0.114+/-0.004 in men of the cancer group and 0.161+/-0.008 in men of the benign group (p<0.002). Based on the analysis of sensitivity and specificity in relation to f/t PSA ratios, use of the 18% cutoff point could detect 89% of cancer cases, and at the same time could avoid 35% of unnecessary prostate biopsies. The areas under the receiver-of-characteristic curve for f/t PSA ratio and total PSA were 0.649 and 0.545, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Serum f/t PSA ratios were significantly lower in patients with prostate cancer than in patients with benign disease. The determination of an appropriate f/t PSA ratio should be based on the generated data such as that demonstrated in this study in order to improve diagnostic accuracy and specificity for patients with equivocal PSA values and to avoid conducting unnecessary prostate biopsies.

Human bladder carcinoma cells with an unusual pattern of in vitro growth: transition from nonproliferative spheroids to active monolayer growth upon interaction with tumor-derived fibroblasts

A new transitional cell carcinoma cell line, BCCA-1, derived from a primary urinary bladder carcinoma, was characterized with respect to the growth patterns of in vitro culture, xenotransplantability in SCID mice and immunophenotypic profile. The most unusual finding was a strong tendency of forming many aggregates (multicell spheroids) in the first few days of flask cultures, followed by the attachment of spheroids to monolayer fibroblasts, which came along from stroma of the same tumor. Unlike those reported tumor spheroids whose peripheral layers contained proliferative cells, BCCA-1 spheroids rarely contained mitotic cells. The three-dimensional architecture of BCCA-1 spheroids drastically changed by the attachment of spheroids to fibroblasts, from which epithelial tumor cells spread; this was accompanied by pseudopodia formation and highly aggressive growth of tumor cells. As the fibroblasts degenerated due to overgrowth, tumor cells started to aggregate by retracting their pseudopods and forming many semi-attached spheroids, which eventually detached from the sheet of degenerated fibroblasts. BCCA-1 produced solid tumors as xenografts in SCID mice by subcutaneous injection with as low as 5 x 10(6) cells, suggesting malignant nature of these cells. Immunostaining revealed the expression of MHC-class I, S100 protein, cytokeratin CK7 and CK20, beta-HCG, CEA, epithelial membrane antigen, Le(y) and folate-binding protein by this tumor. While the biological significance of spheroid formation of this kind by BCCA-1 cells remains unclear, it may represent a protection mechanism, by which TCC cells could sustain their viability under unfavorable culture conditions, but proliferate when the conditions became improved, such as the presence of fibroblasts. Our results point to the importance of tumor-associated stromal fibroblasts in TCC tumor progression. Further mechanistic studies to elucidate the mechanism involved in the stromal cell contact mediated-activation of TCC cells in this model system are warranted.

Renal autotransplantation for ureter stricture and renovascular disorders

BACKGROUND

Renal autotransplantation is an established therapy in cases of renal vascular lesions, tumors of the kidney and ureter, complex ureteral lesions, and kidney trauma. It has been a significant technical innovation, aiding the urologist in his great effort to preserve renal function by conserving renal tissue. We report our experience with autotransplantation in 4 patients. The indications, techniques, and results of renal autotransplantation in relation to our own experience are discussed.

METHODS

The patients included 3 women and one man. The average age of the patients was 35 years old, with a range from 20 to 54 years. One patient had Takayasu's arteritis, the second had Nutcracker syndrome with flank pain and hematuria, the third a complicated long ureter stricture, and the fourth patient a renal artery saccular aneurysm.

RESULTS

The average operation time was 7 hours (4.5 to 8.5 hours), and the cold ischemia time was about 88 minutes (45 to 150 minutes). Three of the autografts resumed normal renal perfusion, and in the fourth patient the renal autograft was lost due to vascular thrombosis.

CONCLUSION

Renal autotransplantation is a feasible method for the surgical treatment of renal and ureteral lesions. To avoid postoperative ureteral sloughing and subsequent urinary fistulas, the ureter can be left intact to preserve the ureter blood supply. However, in the case of a complicated vascular reconstruction procedure, it appears to be appropriate to divide the ureter and have the kidney completely free, thus avoiding back-flow perfusion from the intrinsic and intercommunicating blood supply in the ureteral wall, which may result in vascular thrombosis and subsequent autograft failure.

Enterovesical fistula: experiences with 41 cases in 12 years

BACKGROUND

A retrospective analysis of enterovesical fistula treated at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital was conducted to determine the optimal diagnosis and management of this disease.

METHODS

The records of 41 patients who presented from 1984 to 1996 and had a final diagnosis of enterovesical fistula were retrospectively reviewed. The etiology, symptoms on presentation, diagnostic tools, and modality of treatment were analyzed.

RESULTS

The majority of these cases were associated with malignancy (38, 92.7%), and the others with diverticulitis (2, 4.9%) and iatrogenic causes (1, 2.4%). In those with malignancy, 15 patients (39.5%) were found to have tumor recurrence. The most frequent symptom in enterovesical fistula was fecaluria (58.5%), followed by abdominal pain (22%) and dysuria (14.6%). Diagnostic tools included the barium enema, cystography, and cystoscopy; these methods could identify the fistula in 63.2%, 60%, and 53.8% of the patients, respectively. Methods of management included diversion only (39%), one-stage fistula repair (36.6%), and watchful surveillance (24.4%).

CONCLUSION

Enterovesical fistula should be considered if fecaluria, pneumaturia, or persistent non-specific urinary tract infection present as the initial complaint. A thorough surgery for a possible underlying malignancy is mandatory when confronted with enterovesical fistula, since the incidence of inflammatory bowel disease is low in this area. An abdominal computer tomography (CT) scan, barium enema, and cystogram can be useful diagnostic tools. Treatment of this entity should be individualized according to each patients clinical status.

Characterization of murine Th1 clones specific to egg antigen of Schistosoma japonicum and their interaction with cytokines

T cell clones (B1, B21, B7, A25) specific to the soluble egg antigen (SEA) of Schistosoma japonicum were established from C3H/He mice immunized with SEA. These clones belonged to CD3+, CD4+ and CD8-Th1 cells, showing TCR-gamma delta-, TCR-alpha beta+ and Vbeta10b+. The molecular weights of target antigens recognized by the clones ranged from 51 to 80 kDa. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-12 could vigorously increase the proliferation response of the T clones to SEA; while IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) strongly inhibited the response. IL-12 activity was detected in the culture supernatant of T clones stimulated with SEA in the presence of APC (antigen presenting cells). This stimulation also upregulated the expression of the IL-12 receptor on the T clones. IL-12 from APC served as a costimulatory factor for the SEA induced proliferation of the T clone cells. Clone B1 was able to induce granuloma formation both in vivo and in vitro. These data provide further insight into the complicated interaction among SEA, T cell and cytokine at a clonal level in S. japonicum infection.

trans-dominant interference with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication and transmission in CD4(+) cells by an envelope double mutant

We previously reported that a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope (Env) mutant with the whole cytoplasmic domain deleted, denoted mutant TC, is able to dominantly interfere with wild-type (wt) virus infectivity. In the present study, the feasibility of developing a dominant negative mutant-based genetic anti-HIV strategy targeting the gp41 cytoplasmic domain was investigated. Mutants TC and 427,TC, a TC derivative with a Trp-to-Ser substitution introduced into residue 427 in the CD4-binding site, and a series of mutants with deletions in the cytoplasmic domain, effectively trans-dominantly interfered with wt Env-mediated viral infectivity, as demonstrated by an env trans-complementation assay. The syncytium formation-defective 427, TC double mutant not only inhibited heterologous LAV and ELI Env-mediated viral infectivity but also interfered with syncytium formation and infectivity mediated by the Env proteins of the two primary isolates 92BR and 92US. Stable HeLa-CD4-LTR-beta-gal clones that harbored Tat-controlled expression cassettes encoding the control DeltaKS, which had a deletion in the env gene, wt, or mutant env gene were generated. Viral transmission mediated by laboratory-adapted T-cell-tropic HXB2 and NL4-3 viruses was greatly reduced in the TC and 427,TC transfectants compared to that observed in the control DeltaKS and wt transfectants. Viral replication caused by HXB2 and NL4-3 viruses and by macrophage-tropic ConB and ADA-GG viruses was delayed or reduced in human CD4(+) T cells transfected with the 427,TC env construct compared to that observed in cells transfected with the control DeltaKS or TC env construct. The lack of significant interference by TC mutant was due neither to the lack of TC env gene integration into host DNA nor to the lack of TC Env expression upon Tat induction. These results indicate that this 427,TC Env double mutant has a role in the development of trans-dominant mutant-based genetic anti-HIV strategies.

Conferral of an antiviral state to CD4+ cells by a zipper motif envelope mutant of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmembrane protein gp41

We showed in a transient coexpression study that a single proline substitution for any of the five conserved leucine or isoleucine residues located in the envelope (Env) transmembrane protein gp41 zipper motif of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 dominantly interferes with wild-type Env-mediated viral infectivity. In the present study, we intended to explore the feasibility of developing a genetic anti-HIV strategy targeting the zipper motif. Stable HeLa-CD4-LTR-beta-gal clones that harbored silent copies of Tat-regulated expression cassettes encoding the zipper motif Env mutants were first generated. Expression of any of the five Env mutants in transfectants interfered with exogenously expressed homologous HXB2 Env-mediated cytopathic effects. Mutant transfectants 566, 573, and 580 were further examined. Viral transmission mediated by the laboratory-adapted T cell-tropic HXB2 and NL4-3 viruses was greatly reduced in these transfectants compared with that observed in the env-defective control deltaKS and wt env transfectants. Moreover, viral replication mediated by the NL4-3 virus and a macrophage-tropic ADA-GG virus was delayed or reduced in human T cells harboring the mutant 566 or 580 env construct as opposed to those observed in cells harboring the control deltaKS or mutant 573 env construct. The wt and mutant Env proteins formed a hetero-oligomer when they were coexpressed. These results demonstrate that zipper motif Env mutants 566 and 580 confer an anti-HIV state to the host CD4+ cells, which indicates that dominant inhibitory mutants targeting the gp41 zipper motif might function as genetic anti-HIV agents to combat HIV-1 infection.

Partial nephrectomy for incidental primary renal neuroendocrine carcinoma: case report

Here we present an 83-year-old woman who was referred to our hospital and had had left flank pain and oligouria for 3 days. Plain abdominal film and ultrasonography revealed left ureteropelvic junction stone with obstructive uropathy. The serum level of creatinine fell to 3.1 mg/dl from 7.6 mg/dl after ureteral catheter drainage was given 5 days after admission. Then a left pyelolithotomy was performed and a tumor of 2 x 1 x 1 cm over the lower pole of the left kidney was found incidentally. Partial nephrectomy was performed in consideration of her age and poor renal function although the biopsy result showed it to be carcinoma. The final pathological report and immunohistochemical study results proved that it was neuroendocrine carcinoma. To our knowledge, this is the first case of primary renal neuroendocrine carcinoma to be treated using conservative surgery. The clinical course was acceptable, since she had been found to be free of disease during regular follow-up of 2.5 years with the creatinine level of about 2.5 mg/dl.

Dynamic analysis of T-lymphocyte function in relation to hepatopathologic changes and effect of interleukin-12 treatment in mice infected with Schistosoma japonicum

We analyzed the dynamics of splenic T-lymphocyte function in relation to hepatopathologic changes in C3H/Hc mice, experimentally infected with Schistosoma japonicum. Vigorous granuloma formation was observed at 7 wk postinfection. At 10 wk postinfection, granuloma formation entered into the down-modulation stage, as represented by the diminished granuloma size. The Th2 response was activated when eggs appeared in the liver, whereas Th1 responses were depressed and the proliferation of T lymphocytes was decreased. The level of IgG antibodies to the worm and egg antigens rose continually after infection. Interleukin-12 treatment of infected mice inhibited Th2 responses and T-cell proliferation, decreased granuloma formation and fibrosis, but had no effect on the fecundity of the worms. These data suggest that egg deposition is the major factor driving Th2 responses, depressing Th1 cytokine expression as well as T-cell proliferation in S. japonicum-infected mice.

Prognostic factors and strategy of treatment in Fournier's gangrene: a 12-year retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Fournier's gangrene (FG) is a fulminant and fatal infection of the genitalia. However, the clinical course is unpredictable. This study retrospectively analyzed the possible prognostic factors of FG.

METHODS

Data obtained from 57 patients treated for FG from January 1985 through December 1996 were retrospectively analyzed. Possible prognostic factors including age, diagnostic delay, hospital stay, underlying diseases, clinical symptoms, origins, extents, bacteriologic findings, diverting colostomy and mortality rate were all considered in the analysis.

RESULTS

Patients with extensive or localized FG had mortality rates of 31.3% and 16.0%, respectively (p = 0.227). The mortality rates of patients with FG of anorectal, urogenital and non-specific origin were 30.3%, 0% and 40.0%, respectively (p = 0.712). The mortality rates of patients with FG of anorectal origin who received primary or secondary diverting colostomy were 16.7% and 40.0%, respectively. However, the mortality rate of patients with FG of anorectal origin who did not undergo diversion was 29.4%. The mortality rate of patients with FG presenting with septic shock at emergency was 53.8% as compared with 0% in those without septic shock (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Fournier's gangrene is a rapidly progressive and life threatening infection of the genitalia. Age, underlying diseases, origin, extent and fecal diversion can not be regarded as prognostic factors of FG. Early primary diverting colostomy may reduce the mortality rate in those with severe infection of anorectal origin. Presence of septic shock in those with FG is the most important and the only factor related to death.

Mutations in the leucine zipper-like heptad repeat sequence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 dominantly interfere with wild-type virus infectivity

It has been previously shown that a proline substitution for any of the conserved leucine or isoleucine residues located in the leucine zipper-like heptad repeat sequence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gp41 renders viruses noninfectious and envelope (Env) protein unable to mediate membrane fusion (S. S.-L. Chen, C.-N. Lee, W.-R. Lee, K. McIntosh, and T.-M. Lee, J. Virol. 67:3615-3619, 1993; S. S.-L. Chen, J. Virol. 68:2002-2010, 1994). To understand whether these variants could act as trans-dominant inhibitory mutants, the ability of these mutants to inhibit wild-type (wt) virus infectivity was examined. Comparable amounts of cell- and virion-associated gag gene products as well as virion-associated gp41 were found in transfection with wt or mutant HIV-1 provirus. Viruses obtained from coexpression of wt provirus with mutant 566 or 580 provirus inhibited more potently the production of infectious virus than did viruses generated from cotransfection of wt provirus with other mutant proviruses. Nevertheless, all viruses produced from mixed transfection showed decreased infectivity compared with that of the wt virus when a multinuclear-activation beta-galactosidase induction assay was performed. The ability of wt Env to induce cytopathic effects was inhibited by coexpression with mutant Env. Coexpression of mutants inhibited the ability of the wt protein to mediate virus-to-cell transmission, as demonstrated by an env trans-complementation assay with a defective HIV-1 proviral vector. These observations indicated that mutant Env, per se, interferes with wt Env function. Moreover, cotransfection of wt and mutant proviruses produced amounts of cell- and virion-associated gag gene products comparable to those produced by transfection of wt provirus. Similar amounts of gp41 were also found in virions generated from wt-mutant cotransfection as well as from wt transfection alone. These results indicated that the inhibitory effect conferred by mutants on the wt virus infectivity does not involve the late steps of Gag protein assembly and budding, but they suggest that the wt and mutant Env proteins form a dysfunctional hetero-oligomer which is impaired in an early step of the virus replication cycle. Our study demonstrates that mutations in the HIV-1 gp41 leucine zipper-like heptad repeat sequence dominantly inhibit infectious virus production.

Adrenal extramedullary hematopoietic tumor in a patient with beta-thalassemia

We report a case of adrenal extramedullary hematopoiesis in a 27-year-old woman with beta-thalassemia. She underwent cholecystectomy for gallstones and splenectomy for splenomegaly at the age of 20 years. In January 1996, she was admitted to our hospital because of a palpable nontender mass in the right subcostal area. Ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging disclosed a right suprarenal mass 7.5 x 5.8 cm in size. Surgical exploration and biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of extramedullary hematopoietic (EMH) tumor. The tumor was left in situ. Subsequent follow-up showed no increase in the size of the tumor and no progression of anemia. The patient remained asymptomatic, and no additional EMH tumor developed. Surgery or radiotherapy should be performed only when EMH tumors cause symptoms, such as during spinal cord compression. Adrenal EMH tumors should be considered in thalassemia patients with an adrenal mass, to avoid unnecessary surgical procedures.

Gastric cancer with obstructive uropathy: clinical experience with 17 cases

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer can spread to either the paraaortic area or pelvis causing ureteral obstruction.

METHOD

Between 1984 and 1996, 17 patients with gastric cancer were proven to have obstructive uropathy (OU). Of these, 12 (70%) had poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas.

RESULTS

The obstructed levels were at the proximal ureter (7 cases), distal ureter (7 cases), and at multiple sites in the ureter (3 cases). The mucosa of the ureter tended to be spared. In 3 cases, OU was the initial presentation. Peritoneal carcinomatosis was noted in all cases. Most cases demonstrated obvious paraaortic lymph node and/or pelvic metastases. Management of ureteral obstruction included percutaneous nephrostomy (PCN) in 8 cases, and cystoscopic placement of a ureteral stent in 9 cases with double-J stents used in 8. Insertion of the double-J stent failed in 1 case initially. Four cases using double-J stents resulted in occlusion within 1 month, of which 3 subsequently were successfully changed to PCN.

CONCLUSION

Gastric cancer with OU can obstruct the ureter at any level. Double-J stents exhibited a high failure rate in these patients necessitating a switch to PCN. We could also choose PCN as the initial procedure to preserve renal function.

Culture medium induced morphological changes of melanoma cells associated with change in sensitivity to lysis by lymphokine-activated killer cells

Three sublines (Clones 1, 2 and 7) of the human melanoma CaCL 73-36 cell line with different cellular morphology, growth patterns, melanin content and surface antigenic profile were maintained in RPMI-1640 medium plus 10% fetal bovine serum (abbreviated as RPMI). Each subline was divided into two groups: one grown in RPMI and the other in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium plus 10% fetal bovine serum (abbreviated as DMEM) for 96 h. Phenotypically, Clone 2 expressed Class I and II MHC and ICAM-1 on the surface and in the cytoplasm, while Clones 1 and 7 failed to express these antigens in both the cytoplasm and on the cell surface. Melanotic Clones 1 and 7 cells became even more pigmented, had slower growth rates, and exhibited lower saturation densities when incubated in DMEM than when they were incubated in RPMI. On the other hand, Clone 2 cells maintained in RPMI were grossly amelanotic, contained defective-like melanosomes detected ultrastructurally, and had distinct clusters of microvilli polarly located in most of the cells. Such specialized ultrastructures were not affected by medium conditions. Analysis of sensitivity of the clonal sublines to cytolysis by allogeneic effector cells revealed that in spite of low levels of natural killer (NK) cytotoxicity noted, DMEM produced a 2- to 14-fold increase in sensitivity to NK cells, irrespective of which medium was used. Different levels of lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cytolytic activity were clearly observed in sublines maintained in RPMI, with Clone 2 being the most sensitive and both Clones 1 and 7 being less sensitive. Cells grown in DMEM exhibited significantly higher levels of sensitivity to LAK cytolysis than cells grown in RPMI as revealed by their differences in lytic units (p < 0.05). This was likely due to the high levels of surface ICAM-1 expression in cells incubated in DMEM vs little expression of this adhesion molecule by cells grown in RPMI. Taken together, these results demonstrate the presence of heterogeneous subpopulations within the CaCL 73-36 melanoma cell line regarding their pigmentary status, antigenic profile, growth pattern and responsiveness to NK/LAK cytolysis. The results also call attention to the importance of utilizing a same medium in short- and long-term cultures of melanomas for biological studies and response evaluations of therapeutic agents such as LAK cells, when multiple cell targets from different patients or multi-metastatic cell lines from individual patients are to be compared. Finally, these melanoma sublines may be valuable for further elucidation of the relationship between MHC expression, and increased sensitivity to LAK cytolysis, and the role of the components of DMEM in the mechanism for the observed induction of cell differentiation and enhanced LAK cytolysis.

Application of cryoablation in the management of prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Radical prostatectomy is the most common and effective therapy for localized prostate cancer. But in addition to its surgical complications, even highly selected series carry a positive margin rate of 35 to 50%. Radiotherapy is another alternative for prostate cancer, but following radiotherapy there have been high positive biopsies reported. Cryosurgery, defined as in situ freezing and hence, devitalization of neoplastic tissues, has currently raised the interest of urologists in the management of localized prostate cancer or failed radiotherapy.

MATERIAL

Five patients underwent transperineal cryosurgery of prostate in Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. Among them, three cases were stage D, one stage B and another failed radiotherapy of stage C prostate cancer. All patients received hormone therapy too.

RESULTS

PSA declined in 3 patients and biopsies showed intraductal neoplasia. All 5 patients suffered from urine incontinence and one persisted. No mortality has been reported.

CONCLUSION

Cryoablation of the prostate is an alternative for treatment of prostate cancer.

Two Otx proteins generated from multiple transcripts of a single gene in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus

Orthodenticle-related (Otx) proteins are a highly conserved class of homeobox-containing transcription factors found in a wide range of organisms. They function in numerous developmental events, most prominently, anterior head patterning in insects and vertebrates. In the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, an orthodenticle-related protein called SpOtx is believed to direct the activation of the aboral ectoderm-specific Spec2a gene and more generally the differentiation of aboral ectoderm cells. To learn more about the structure, expression, and function of SpOtx and compare its properties with those of orthologs from other species, we isolated cDNA and genomic clones containing SpOtx sequences. Here, we report that SpOtx exists in two forms (alpha and beta) that are generated by alternative RNA splicing from a single SpOtx gene. SpOtx(alpha) and SpOtx(beta) had identical C-termini and homeoboxes but were entirely different in their N-terminal domains. SpOtx(alpha) mRNAs were transcribed from a single start site and accumulated in all cells during cleavage, but were gradually concentrated in oral ectoderm and vegetal plate territories during gastrulation. In contrast, three distinct SpOtx(beta) mRNAs resulted from two separate transcriptional initiation events, and these transcripts began to accumulate at mesenchyme blastula stage primarily in ectoderm and then later were largely restricted to oral ectoderm and vegetal plate territories. DNA-binding activity for SpOtx(beta) appeared later in development than SpOtx(alpha). Overexpression of SpOtx(alpha) and SpOtx(beta) induced in sea urchin embryos by mRNA injection demonstrated that SpOtx(alpha) was able to repress the accumulation of SpOtx(beta) transcripts, whereas SpOtx(beta) had no effect on the accumulation of SpOtx(alpha) transcripts. These results demonstrate that novel forms of Otx are produced in sea urchins by differential promoter utilization and alternative splicing. It may be that similar regulatory mechanisms lead to diverse forms of Otx in vertebrates.

Effect of IL-12 on granuloma formation induced by injected Schistosoma japonicum eggs

The regulatory functions of IL-12 on granuloma formation by the eggs of S. japonicum in the lungs of BALB/c mice were studied. Mice were injected i.v. with the eggs to induce the pulmonary granuloma. On days 0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 after injection, mice were injected i.p. with murine rIL-12 at a dose of 1 microgram day-1 (Group I) or 3 micrograms day-1 (Group II) or with PBS as a control (Group III). On day 10, all mice were sacrificed. The areas of pulmonary granulomas in histological sections were quantitatively measured by image analyser and the levels of mRNA for IL-10, IFN-gamma, IL-12 and IL-5 were assayed by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). The results showed that the mean area per granuloma was significantly decreased in Groups I and II as compared with Group III. As for cytokine induction, IL-10- and IFN-gamma-specific bands appeared in Groups I and II, but not in Group III. Bands for IL-5 appeared in all groups, while bands for IL-12 were not detected in any group. It is suggested that IL-12 could inhibit the Th2 dominant granuloma formation induced by the eggs of S. japonicum.