1
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Via CW, Grauso L, McManus KM, Kirk RD, Kim AM, Webb EA, Held NA, Saito MA, Scarpato S, Zimba PV, Moeller PDR, Mangoni A, Bertin MJ. Spatial and Temporal Resolution of Cyanobacterial Bloom Chemistry Reveals an Open-Ocean Trichodesmium thiebautii as a Talented Producer of Specialized Metabolites. Environ Sci Technol 2024. [PMID: 38758591 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
While the ecological role that Trichodesmium sp. play in nitrogen fixation has been widely studied, little information is available on potential specialized metabolites that are associated with blooms and standing stock Trichodesmium colonies. While a collection of biological material from a T. thiebautii bloom event from North Padre Island, Texas, in 2014 indicated that this species was a prolific producer of chlorinated specialized metabolites, additional spatial and temporal resolution was needed. We have completed these metabolite comparison studies, detailed in the current report, utilizing LC-MS/MS-based molecular networking to visualize and annotate the specialized metabolite composition of these Trichodesmium blooms and colonies in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) and other waters. Our results showed that T. thiebautii blooms and colonies found in the GoM have a remarkably consistent specialized metabolome. Additionally, we isolated and characterized one new macrocyclic compound from T. thiebautii, trichothilone A (1), which was also detected in three independent cultures of T. erythraeum. Genome mining identified genes predicted to synthesize certain functional groups in the T. thiebautii metabolites. These results provoke intriguing questions of how these specialized metabolites affect Trichodesmium ecophysiology, symbioses with marine invertebrates, and niche development in the global oligotrophic ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Laura Grauso
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Universita 100, Portici Napoli 80055, Italy
| | - Kelly M McManus
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Riley D Kirk
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Andrew M Kim
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Eric A Webb
- Marine and Environmental Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Noelle A Held
- Marine and Environmental Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Mak A Saito
- Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United States
| | - Silvia Scarpato
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy
| | - Paul V Zimba
- Rice Rivers Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Peter D R Moeller
- Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring and Reference Branch, Stressor Detection and Impacts Division, National Ocean Service/NOAA, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United States
| | - Alfonso Mangoni
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy
| | - Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
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2
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Jouaneh TMM, Motta N, Wu C, Coffey C, Via CW, Kirk RD, Bertin MJ. Analysis of botanicals and botanical supplements by LC-MS/MS-based molecular networking: Approaches for annotating plant metabolites and authentication. Fitoterapia 2022; 159:105200. [PMID: 35460834 PMCID: PMC9148416 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2022.105200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Prior to the advent of modern medicine, humans have used botanicals extensively for their therapeutic potential. With the majority of newly approved drugs having their origins in natural products, plants remain at the forefront of drug discovery. Continued research and discovery necessitate the use of high-throughput analytical methods to screen and identify bioactive components and potential therapeutic molecules from plants. Utilizing a pre-generated plant extract library, we subjected botanicals to LC-MS/MS-based molecular networking to determine their chemical composition and relatively quantify already known metabolites. The LC-MS/MS-based molecular networking approach was also used to authenticate the composition of dietary supplements against their corresponding plant specimens. The networking procedures provided concise visual representations of the chemical space and highly informative assessments of the botanicals. The procedures also proved to define the composition of the botanical supplements quickly and efficiently. This offered an innovative approach to metabolite profiling and authentication practices and additionally allowed for the identification of new, putatively unknown metabolites for future isolation and biological evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terra Marie M Jouaneh
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Neil Motta
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Christine Wu
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Cole Coffey
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Riley D Kirk
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA.
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McManus KM, Kirk RD, Via CW, Lotti JS, Roduit AF, Teta R, Scarpato S, Mangoni A, Bertin MJ. Isolation of Isotrichophycin C and Trichophycins G-I from a Collection of Trichodesmium thiebautii. J Nat Prod 2020; 83:2664-2671. [PMID: 32816476 PMCID: PMC7815318 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The trichophycin family of compounds are chlorinated polyketides first discovered from environmental collections of a bloom-forming Trichodesmium sp. cyanobacterium. In an effort to fully capture the chemical space of this group of metabolites, the utilization of MS/MS-based molecular networking of a Trichodesmium thiebautii extract revealed a metabolome replete with halogenated compounds. Subsequent MS-guided isolation resulted in the characterization of isotrichophycin C and trichophycins G-I (1-4). These new metabolites had intriguing structural variations from those trichophycins previously characterized, which allowed for a comparative study to examine structural features that are associated with toxicity to murine neuroblastoma cells. Additionally, we propose the absolute configuration of the previously characterized trichophycin A (5). Overall, the metabolome of the Trichodesmium bloom is hallmarked by an unprecedented amount of chlorinated molecules, many of which remain to be structurally characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M McManus
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Riley D Kirk
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - James S Lotti
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Alexandre F Roduit
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
| | - Roberta Teta
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Silvia Scarpato
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Alfonso Mangoni
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
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Teta R, Sala GD, Esposito G, Via CW, Mazzoccoli C, Piccoli C, Bertin MJ, Costantino V, Mangoni A. A joint molecular networking study of a Smenospongia sponge and a cyanobacterial bloom revealed new antiproliferative chlorinated polyketides. Org Chem Front 2019; 6:1762-1774. [PMID: 31871685 PMCID: PMC6927677 DOI: 10.1039/c9qo00074g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The bloom-forming cyanobacteria Trichodesmium sp. have been recently shown to produce some of the chlorinated peptides/polyketides previously isolated from the marine sponge Smenospongia aurea. A comparative analysis of extracts from S. aurea and Trichodesmium sp. was performed using tandem mass spectrometry-based molecular networking. The analysis, specifically targeted to chlorinated metabolites, showed that many of them are common to the two organisms, but also that some general differences exist between the two metabolomes. Following this analysis, six new chlorinated metabolites were isolated and their structures elucidated: four polyketides, smenolactones A-D (1-4) from S. aurea, and two new conulothiazole analogues, isoconulothiazole B (5) and conulothiazole C (6) from Trichodesmium sp. The absolute configuration of smenolactone C (3) was determined by taking advantage of the conformational rigidity of open 1,3-disubstituted alkyl chains. The antiproliferative activity of smenolactones was evaluated on three tumor cell lines, and they were active at low-micromolar or sub-micromolar concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Teta
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Gerardo Della Sala
- Laboratory of Pre-clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, Via Padre Pio 1, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy
| | - Germana Esposito
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
| | - Carmela Mazzoccoli
- Laboratory of Pre-clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, Via Padre Pio 1, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy
| | - Claudia Piccoli
- Laboratory of Pre-clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, Via Padre Pio 1, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, viale Pinto 1, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
| | - Valeria Costantino
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Alfonso Mangoni
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
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5
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Bertin MJ, Saurí J, Liu Y, Via CW, Roduit AF, Williamson RT. Trichophycins B-F, Chlorovinylidene-Containing Polyketides Isolated from a Cyanobacterial Bloom. J Org Chem 2018; 83:13256-13266. [PMID: 30280904 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.8b02070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
NMR-guided isolation (based on 1D 1H and 13C NMR resonances consistent with a chlorovinylidene moiety) resulted in the characterization of five new highly functionalized polyketides, trichophycins B-F (1-5), and one nonchlorinated metabolite tricholactone (6) from a collection of Trichodesmium bloom material from the Gulf of Mexico. The planar structures of 1-6 were determined using 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and complementary spectroscopic procedures. Absolute configuration analysis of 1 and 2 were carried out by 1H NMR analysis of diastereomeric Mosher esters in addition to ECD spectroscopy, J-based configuration analysis, and DFT calculations. The absolute configurations of 3-6 were proposed on the basis of comparative analysis of 13C NMR chemical shifts, relative configurations, and optical rotation values to compounds 1 and 2. Compounds 1-5 represent new additions to the trichophycin family and are hallmarked by a chlorovinylidene moiety. These new trichophycins and tricholactone (1-6) feature intriguing variations with respect to putative biosynthetic starting units, halogenation, and terminations, and trichophycin E (4) features a rare alkynyl bromide functionality. The phenyl-containing trichophycins showed low cytotoxicity to neuro-2A cells, while the alkyne-containing trichophycins showed no toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , University of Rhode Island , 7 Greenhouse Road , Kingston , Rhode Island 02881 , United States
| | - Josep Saurí
- Structure Elucidation Group, Process and Analytical Research and Development , Merck and Co. Inc , 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur , Boston , Massachusetts 02115 , United States
| | - Yizhou Liu
- Structure Elucidation Group, Process and Analytical Research and Development , Merck and Co. Inc , 126 East Lincoln Avenue , Rahway , New Jersey 07065 , United States
| | - Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , University of Rhode Island , 7 Greenhouse Road , Kingston , Rhode Island 02881 , United States
| | - Alexandre F Roduit
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , University of Rhode Island , 7 Greenhouse Road , Kingston , Rhode Island 02881 , United States
| | - R Thomas Williamson
- Structure Elucidation Group, Process and Analytical Research and Development , Merck and Co. Inc , 126 East Lincoln Avenue , Rahway , New Jersey 07065 , United States
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6
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Via CW, Glukhov E, Costa S, Zimba PV, Moeller PDR, Gerwick WH, Bertin MJ. The Metabolome of a Cyanobacterial Bloom Visualized by MS/MS-Based Molecular Networking Reveals New Neurotoxic Smenamide Analogs (C, D, and E). Front Chem 2018; 6:316. [PMID: 30094232 PMCID: PMC6071517 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the cyanobacterial genus Trichodesmium are well known for their substantial impact on nitrogen influx in ocean ecosystems and the enormous surface blooms they form in tropical and subtropical locations. However, the secondary metabolite composition of these complex environmental bloom events is not well known, nor the possibility of the production of potent toxins that have been observed in other bloom-forming marine and freshwater cyanobacteria species. In the present work, we aimed to characterize the metabolome of a Trichodesmium bloom utilizing MS/MS-based molecular networking. Furthermore, we integrated cytotoxicity assays in order to identify and ultimately isolate potential cyanotoxins from the bloom. These efforts led to the isolation and identification of several members of the smenamide family, including three new smenamide analogs (1-3) as well as the previously reported smenothiazole A-hybrid polyketide-peptide compounds. Two of these new smenamides possessed cytotoxicity to neuro-2A cells (1 and 3) and their presence elicits further questions as to their potential ecological roles. HPLC profiling and molecular networking of chromatography fractions from the bloom revealed an elaborate secondary metabolome, generating hypotheses with respect to the environmental role of these metabolites and the consistency of this chemical composition across genera, space and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher W. Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | - Evgenia Glukhov
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Samuel Costa
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | - Paul V. Zimba
- Center for Coastal Studies and Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX, United States
| | - Peter D. R. Moeller
- Emerging Toxins Program, Hollings Marine Laboratory, National Ocean Service/NOAA, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - William H. Gerwick
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Matthew J. Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
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7
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Belisle RS, Via CW, Schock TB, Villareal TA, Zimba PV, Beauchesne KR, Moeller PDR, Bertin MJ. Trichothiazole A, a dichlorinated polyketide containing an embedded thiazole isolated from Trichodesmium blooms. Tetrahedron Lett 2017; 58:4066-4068. [PMID: 32189813 PMCID: PMC7079771 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2017.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry-guided isolation of the lipophilic extract of Trichodesmium bloom material led to the isolation and structure characterization of a new thiazole-containing di-chlorinated polyketide (1). The structure of 1 was deduced using 1D and 2D NMR analysis, high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis and complementary spectroscopic procedures. Trichothiazole A possesses interesting structural features, such as a terminal alkyne, two vinyl chlorides and a 2,4-disubstituted thiazole. Trichothiazole A showed moderate cytotoxicity to Neuro-2A cells (EC50: 13.3 ± 1.1 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard S. Belisle
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
| | - Christopher W. Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
| | - Tracey B. Schock
- National Institutes of Standards and Technology, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, United States
| | - Tracy A. Villareal
- Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, 750 Channel View Drive, Port Aransas, Texas 78373, United States
| | - Paul V. Zimba
- Center for Coastal Studies and Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M, Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, United States
| | - Kevin R. Beauchesne
- Emerging Toxins Program, National Ocean Service/NOAA, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, United States
| | - Peter D. R. Moeller
- Emerging Toxins Program, National Ocean Service/NOAA, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, United States
| | - Matthew J. Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, United States
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8
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Bertin MJ, Roduit AF, Sun J, Alves GE, Via CW, Gonzalez MA, Zimba PV, Moeller PDR. Tricholides A and B and Unnarmicin D: New Hybrid PKS-NRPS Macrocycles Isolated from an Environmental Collection of Trichodesmium thiebautii. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E206. [PMID: 28665343 PMCID: PMC5532648 DOI: 10.3390/md15070206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 06/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioassay-guided isolation of the lipophilic extract of Trichodesmium thiebautii bloom material led to the purification and structure characterization of two new hybrid polyketide-non-ribosomal peptide (PKS-NRPS) macrocyclic compounds, tricholides A and B (1 and 2). A third macrocyclic compound, unnarmicin D (3), was identified as a new depsipeptide in the unnarmicin family, given its structural similarity to the existing compounds in this group. The planar structures of 1-3 were determined using 1D and 2D NMR spectra and complementary spectroscopic and spectrometric procedures. The absolute configurations of the amino acid components of 1-3 were determined via acid hydrolysis, derivitization with Marfey's reagent and HPLC-UV comparison to authentic amino acid standards. The absolute configuration of the 3-hydroxydodecanoic acid moiety in 3 was determined using a modified Mosher's esterification procedure on a linear derivative of tricharmicin (4) and additionally by a comparison of 13C NMR shifts of 3 to known depsipeptides with β-hydroxy acid subunits. Tricholide B (2) showed moderate cytotoxicity to Neuro-2A murine neuroblastoma cells (EC50: 14.5 ± 6.2 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Bertin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Alexandre F Roduit
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Jiadong Sun
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Gabriella E Alves
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Christopher W Via
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Miguel A Gonzalez
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
| | - Paul V Zimba
- Center for Coastal Studies and Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA.
| | - Peter D R Moeller
- Emerging Toxins Program, National Ocean Service/NOAA, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412, USA.
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