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de Sousa-Pereira P, Lanning DK, Esteves PJ, Spoerry C, Woof JM, Pinheiro A. Rabbit IgA Hinges That Resist IgA1 Protease Action Provide Options for Improved IgA-Based Therapeutic Agents. Front Immunol 2022; 13:907342. [PMID: 35784276 PMCID: PMC9247829 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.907342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunoglobulin A provides a major line of defence against pathogens and plays a key role in the maintenance of the commensal microbiota in the intestinal tract. Having been shown to be more effective at tumour cell killing than IgG and strongly active against pathogens present in the mucosae, IgA antibodies have been attracting significant attention in recent years for use as therapeutic antibodies. To improve their therapeutic potential, bioengineered IgA forms with increased serum half-life and neutralizing abilities have been developed but the IgA hinge, which impacts susceptibility to bacterial proteases and ability to bridge between target and effector cells, has not yet been explored. The European rabbit has 15 IgA subclasses with exclusive hinge region motifs and varying lengths, constituting a unique model to evaluate the functional capabilities offered by incorporation of longer IgA hinges into immunoglobulins. Hinge regions from rabbit IgAs, featuring different lengths and sequences, were inserted into human IgA1 heavy chain to substitute the IgA1 hinge. These hinges did not appear to affect antigen binding nor the ability of the engineered chimeric IgA1 to bind and trigger FcαRI, as detected by IgA-mediated cell agglutination and release of superoxide by neutrophils. All rabbit hinge-human IgA1 hybrids were resistant to Clostridrum ramosum IgA protease enzyme digestion, as predicted by the lack of the cleavage site in the rabbit hinges. Some IgA1s featuring long rabbit hinges were cleaved by Neisseria meningitidis IgA1 protease cleavage type 1 or 2 enzymes, despite the lack of the predicted cleavage sites. More interestingly, the hybrid featuring the rabbit IgA15 hinge was not affected by any of the IgA proteases. The IgA15 hinge is longer than that found in human IgA1 and is composed by a unique motif with a stretch of nine consecutive Ser residues. These characteristics allow the preservation of a long hinge, with associated ability to bridge distantly spaced antigens and provide higher avidity binding, while remaining resistant to IgA protease degradation. The data suggest that the rabbit Cα15 hinge represents an interesting alternative hinge sequence for therapeutic human IgA antibodies that remains resistant to proteolytic cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia de Sousa-Pereira
- CIBIO-UP, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, InBIO, Laboratório Associado, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis K. Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, United States
| | - Pedro J. Esteves
- CIBIO-UP, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, InBIO, Laboratório Associado, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- CITS—Centro de Investigação em Tecnologias da Saúde, IPSN, CESPU, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Christian Spoerry
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, BioClinicum, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jenny M. Woof
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Pinheiro
- CIBIO-UP, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, InBIO, Laboratório Associado, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Ana Pinheiro,
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Esteves PJ, Abrantes J, Baldauf HM, BenMohamed L, Chen Y, Christensen N, González-Gallego J, Giacani L, Hu J, Kaplan G, Keppler OT, Knight KL, Kong XP, Lanning DK, Le Pendu J, de Matos AL, Liu J, Liu S, Lopes AM, Lu S, Lukehart S, Manabe YC, Neves F, McFadden G, Pan R, Peng X, de Sousa-Pereira P, Pinheiro A, Rahman M, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Subbian S, Tuñón MJ, van der Loo W, Vaine M, Via LE, Wang S, Mage R. Author Correction: The wide utility of rabbits as models of human diseases. Exp Mol Med 2019; 51:1. [PMID: 31270317 PMCID: PMC6802666 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-019-0252-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This article was originally published under a CC BY-NC-SA License, but has now been made available under a CC BY 4.0 License.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro J Esteves
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal. .,Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal. .,Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde (CESPU), Gandra, Portugal.
| | - Joana Abrantes
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Hanna-Mari Baldauf
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Lbachir BenMohamed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine School of Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Yuxing Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Neil Christensen
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Javier González-Gallego
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), University of León, 24071, León, Spain
| | - Lorenzo Giacani
- Departments of Medicine and Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Jiafen Hu
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Gilla Kaplan
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Oliver T Keppler
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Katherine L Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Xiang-Peng Kong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY10016, USA
| | - Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Jacques Le Pendu
- CRCINA, Inserm, Université d'Angers, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Ana Lemos de Matos
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR, 72205, USA
| | - Shuying Liu
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Ana M Lopes
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Anatomy and Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine (UMIB), Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Shan Lu
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Sheila Lukehart
- Departments of Medicine and Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Yukari C Manabe
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Fabiana Neves
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Grant McFadden
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | - Ruimin Pan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY10016, USA
| | - Xuwen Peng
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Patricia de Sousa-Pereira
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.,Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Ana Pinheiro
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Masmudur Rahman
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | | | - Selvakumar Subbian
- The Public Health Research Institute (PHRI) at New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences (RBHS), Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Maria Jesús Tuñón
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), University of León, 24071, León, Spain
| | - Wessel van der Loo
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Michael Vaine
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Laura E Via
- Tubercolosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Shixia Wang
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Rose Mage
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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3
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Pinheiro A, de Sousa-Pereira P, Almeida T, Ferreira CC, Otis JA, Boudreau MR, Seguin JL, Lanning DK, Esteves PJ. Sequencing of VDJ genes in Lepus americanus confirms a correlation between VHn expression and the leporid species continent of origin. Mol Immunol 2019; 112:182-187. [PMID: 31174011 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Leporid VH genes used in the generation of their primary antibody repertoire exhibit highly divergent lineages. For the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) four VHa lineages have been described, the a1, a2, a3 and a4. Hares (Lepus spp.) and cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) express one VHa lineage each, the a2L and the a5, respectively, along with a more ancient lineage, the Lepus spp. sL and S. floridanus sS. Both the European rabbit and the Lepus europaeus use a third lineage, VHn, in a low proportion of their VDJ rearrangements. The VHn genes are a conserved ancestral polymorphism that is being maintained in the leporid genome.Their usage in a low proportion of VDJ rearrangements by both European rabbit and L. europaeus but not S. floridanus has been argued to be a remnant of an ancient European leporid immunologic response to pathogens. To address this hypothesis, in this study we sequenced VDJ rearranged genes for another North American leporid, L. americanus. Our results show that L. americanus expressed these genes less frequently and in a highly modified fashion compared to the European Lepus species. Our results suggest that the American leporid species use a different VH repertoire than the European species which may be related with an immune adaptation to different environmental conditions, such as different pathogenic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pinheiro
- CIBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal.
| | - Patricia de Sousa-Pereira
- CIBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal; Max von Pettenkofer-Institute for Virology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tereza Almeida
- CIBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina C Ferreira
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada; UFZ - Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Conservation Biology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Josée-Anne Otis
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Jacob L Seguin
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, United States
| | - Pedro J Esteves
- CIBIO Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal; Centro de Investigação em Tecnologias da Saúde, IPSN, CESPU, 4585-116, Gandra, Portugal
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4
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Esteves PJ, Abrantes J, Baldauf HM, BenMohamed L, Chen Y, Christensen N, González-Gallego J, Giacani L, Hu J, Kaplan G, Keppler OT, Knight KL, Kong XP, Lanning DK, Le Pendu J, de Matos AL, Liu J, Liu S, Lopes AM, Lu S, Lukehart S, Manabe YC, Neves F, McFadden G, Pan R, Peng X, de Sousa-Pereira P, Pinheiro A, Rahman M, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Subbian S, Tuñón MJ, van der Loo W, Vaine M, Via LE, Wang S, Mage R. The wide utility of rabbits as models of human diseases. Exp Mol Med 2018; 50:1-10. [PMID: 29789565 PMCID: PMC5964082 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-018-0094-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies using the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus contributed to elucidating numerous fundamental aspects of antibody structure and diversification mechanisms and continue to be valuable for the development and testing of therapeutic humanized polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Additionally, during the last two decades, the use of the European rabbit as an animal model has been increasingly extended to many human diseases. This review documents the continuing wide utility of the rabbit as a reliable disease model for development of therapeutics and vaccines and studies of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying many human diseases. Examples include syphilis, tuberculosis, HIV-AIDS, acute hepatic failure and diseases caused by noroviruses, ocular herpes, and papillomaviruses. The use of rabbits for vaccine development studies, which began with Louis Pasteur’s rabies vaccine in 1881, continues today with targets that include the potentially blinding HSV-1 virus infection and HIV-AIDS. Additionally, two highly fatal viral diseases, rabbit hemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis, affect the European rabbit and provide unique models to understand co-evolution between a vertebrate host and viral pathogens. Rabbits offer a powerful complement to rodents as a model for studying human immunology, disease pathology, and responses to infectious disease. A review from Pedro Esteves at the University of Porto, Portugal, Rose Mage of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, Bethesda, USA and colleagues highlights some of the areas of research where rabbits offer an edge over rats and mice. Rabbits have a particularly sophisticated adaptive immune system, which could provide useful insights into human biology and produce valuable research and clinical reagents. They are also excellent models for studying - infectious diseases such as syphilis and tuberculosis, which produce pathology that closely resembles that of human patients. Rabbit-specific infections such as myxomatosis are giving researchers insights into how pathogens and hosts can shape each other’s evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro J Esteves
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal. .,Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal. .,Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde (CESPU), Gandra, Portugal.
| | - Joana Abrantes
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Hanna-Mari Baldauf
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Lbachir BenMohamed
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine School of Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Yuxing Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Neil Christensen
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Javier González-Gallego
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), University of León, 24071, León, Spain
| | - Lorenzo Giacani
- Departments of Medicine and Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Jiafen Hu
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Gilla Kaplan
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Oliver T Keppler
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Katherine L Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Xiang-Peng Kong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY10016, USA
| | - Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Jacques Le Pendu
- CRCINA, Inserm, Université d'Angers, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Ana Lemos de Matos
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR, 72205, USA
| | - Shuying Liu
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Ana M Lopes
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Anatomy and Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine (UMIB), Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Shan Lu
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Sheila Lukehart
- Departments of Medicine and Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Yukari C Manabe
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Fabiana Neves
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Grant McFadden
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | - Ruimin Pan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY10016, USA
| | - Xuwen Peng
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, and Comparative Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Patricia de Sousa-Pereira
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.,Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Ana Pinheiro
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Masmudur Rahman
- The Biodesign Institute, Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-5401, USA
| | | | - Selvakumar Subbian
- The Public Health Research Institute (PHRI) at New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences (RBHS), Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Maria Jesús Tuñón
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), University of León, 24071, León, Spain
| | - Wessel van der Loo
- CIBIO, InBIO, Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universidade do Porto, Campus de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Michael Vaine
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Laura E Via
- Tubercolosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Shixia Wang
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Rose Mage
- Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Abstract
Although IgD first appeared, along with IgM, in the cartilaginous fishes and has been retained throughout subsequent vertebrate evolution, it has been lost in a diverse group of vertebrate species. We previously showed that, unlike vertebrates that express IgD, the rabbit lacks an IgD (Cδ) gene within 13.5 kb downstream of the IgM gene. We report here that, by conducting BLAST searches of rabbit Ig heavy chain genomic DNA with known mammalian IgD exons, we identified the remnant of the rabbit Cδ gene approximately 21 kb downstream of the IgM gene. The remnant Cδ locus lacks the δCH1 and hinge exons, but contains truncated δCH2 and δCH3 exons, as well as largely intact, but non-functional, secretory and transmembrane exons. In addition, we report that the Cδ gene probably became non-functional in leporids at least prior to the divergence of rabbits and hares ~12 million years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K. Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Translational Research and Education, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Pedro J. Esteves
- InBIO-Research Network in Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- CITS - Centro de Investigação em Tecnologias de Saúde, CESPU, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Katherine L. Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Translational Research and Education, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
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6
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Abstract
Gene conversion, mediated by activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), has been found to contribute to generation of the primary antibody repertoire in several vertebrate species. Generation of the primary antibody repertoire by gene conversion of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes occurs primarily in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) and is best described in chicken and rabbit. Here, we discuss current knowledge of the mechanism of gene conversion as well as the contribution of the microbiota in promoting gene conversion of Ig genes. Finally, we propose that the antibody diversification strategy used in GALT species, such as chicken and rabbit, is conserved in a subset of human and mouse B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, 2160 S. First Avenue, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA
| | - Katherine L Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, 2160 S. First Avenue, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA.
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7
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Zhai SK, Volgina VV, Sethupathi P, Knight KL, Lanning DK. Chemokine-mediated B cell trafficking during early rabbit GALT development. J Immunol 2014; 193:5951-9. [PMID: 25385821 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Microbial and host cell interactions stimulate rabbit B cells to diversify the primary Ab repertoire in GALT. B cells at the base of appendix follicles begin proliferating and diversifying their V-(D)-J genes around 1 wk of age, ∼5 d after B cells first begin entering appendix follicles. To gain insight into the microbial and host cell interactions that stimulate B cells to diversify the primary Ab repertoire, we analyzed B cell trafficking within follicles during the first week of life. We visualized B cells, as well as chemokines that mediate B cell homing in lymphoid tissues, by in situ hybridization, and we examined B cell chemokine receptor expression by flow cytometry. We found that B cells were activated and began downregulating their BCRs well before a detectable B cell proliferative region appeared at the follicle base. The proliferative region was similar to germinal center dark zones, in that it exhibited elevated CXCL12 mRNA expression, and B cells that upregulated CXCR4 mRNA in response to signals acquired from selected intestinal commensals localized in this region. Our results suggest that after entering appendix follicles, B cells home sequentially to the follicle-associated epithelium, the follicular dendritic cell network, the B cell/T cell boundary, and, ultimately, the base of the follicle, where they enter a proliferative program and diversify the primary Ab repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Kang Zhai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
| | - Veronica V Volgina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
| | - Periannan Sethupathi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
| | - Katherine L Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
| | - Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153
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de Matos AL, Lanning DK, Esteves PJ. Genetic characterization of CCL3, CCL4 and CCL5 in leporid genera Oryctolagus, Sylvilagus and Lepus. Int J Immunogenet 2013; 41:154-8. [PMID: 24103103 DOI: 10.1111/iji.12095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The genetic diversity of C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) ligands CCL3, CCL4 and CCL5 in the leporid genera Oryctolagus, Sylvilagus and Lepus was studied. Our results demonstrate that the three CCR5 chemokine ligands are under strong purifying selection as a result of possible functional binding constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lemos de Matos
- CIBIO - Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos/InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal; Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
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de Matos AL, van der Loo W, Areal H, Lanning DK, Esteves PJ. Study of Sylvilagus rabbit TRIM5α species-specific domain: how ancient endoviruses could have shaped the antiviral repertoire in Lagomorpha. BMC Evol Biol 2011; 11:294. [PMID: 21982459 PMCID: PMC3208668 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-11-294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Since the first report of the antiretroviral restriction factor TRIM5α in primates, several orthologs in other mammals have been described. Recent studies suggest that leporid retroviruses like RELIK, the first reported endogenous lentivirus ever, may have imposed positive selection in TRIM5α orthologs of the European rabbit and European brown hare. Considering that RELIK must already have been present in a common ancestor of the leporid genera Lepus, Sylvilagus and Oryctolagus, we extended the study of evolutionary patterns of TRIM5α to other members of the Leporidae family, particularly to the genus Sylvilagus. Therefore, we obtained the TRIM5α nucleotide sequences of additional subspecies and species of the three leporid genera. We also compared lagomorph TRIM5α deduced protein sequences and established TRIM5α gene and TRIM5α protein phylogenies. Results The deduced protein sequence of Iberian hare TRIM5α was 89% identical to European rabbit TRIM5α, although high divergence was observed at the PRYSPRY v1 region between rabbit and the identified alleles from this hare species (allele 1: 50% divergence; allele 2: 53% divergence). A high identity was expected between the Sylvilagus and Oryctolagus TRIM5α proteins and, in fact, the Sylvilagus TRIM5α was 91% identical to the Oryctolagus protein. Nevertheless, the PRYSPRY v1 region was only 50% similar between these genera. Selection analysis of Lagomorpha TRIM5α proteins identified 25 positively-selected codons, 11 of which are located in the PRYSPRY v1 region, responsible for species specific differences in viral capsid recognition. Conclusions By extending Lagomorpha TRIM5α studies to an additional genus known to bear RELIK, we verified that the divergent species-specific pattern observed between the Oryctolagus and Lepus PRYSPRY-domains is also present in Sylvilagus TRIM5α. This work is one of the first known studies that compare the evolution of the antiretroviral restriction factor TRIM5α in different mammalian groups, Lagomorpha and Primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lemos de Matos
- Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
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Lanning DK, Knight KL. Onset of Antibody Repertoire Diversification in the Rabbit Appendix (81.17). The Journal of Immunology 2009. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.supp.81.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Unlike mice and humans, rabbits generate their primary antibody repertoire by somatically diversifying V(D)J genes in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT). Rabbit V(D)J genes are diversified by somatic hyper-point mutation and somatic gene conversion, both of which require activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID). To determine when repertoire diversification begins, we examined AID expression in neonatal rabbit appendix by in situ hybridization. We first detected AID mRNA expression at one week of age, in B cells in the basolateral region of appendix follicles. We asked whether AID+ B cells were undergoing V(D)J gene diversification by using laser capture microdissection (LCM) to isolate AID+ and AID- B cells from 1-week-old appendix follicles. We RT-PCR-amplified and cloned VDJ genes from the two B cell populations, and searched for evidence of somatic diversification by comparing their nucleotide sequences to those of the appropriate germline genes. We found somatic gene conversion events in the VDJ genes from AID+ B cells, but not in those from AID- B cells. These results demonstrate that diversification of the rabbit primary antibody repertoire begins around 1 week of age, in B cells residing at the basolateral region of appendix follicles. This work was supported by NIH Grant 1 RO1 AI49458-01A1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K. Lanning
- 1Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois
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Hanson NB, Lanning DK. Microbial induction of B and T cell areas in rabbit appendix. Dev Comp Immunol 2008; 32:980-91. [PMID: 18329710 PMCID: PMC2408667 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2008.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2007] [Revised: 01/20/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2008] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) development requires interaction with the intestinal microbiota. Because murine secondary lymphoid tissue development is driven by positive feedback interactions between B cells and stromal cells, we used in situ hybridization to determine whether intestinal commensals influence such interactions during rabbit appendix development. The features of positive feedback interactions we examined (CXCL13 mRNA expression, B cell accumulation and FDC differentiation) increased during early follicle development, but stalled in the absence of intestinal commensals. These features were reinitiated by commensals that stimulated follicle development and intrafollicular B cell proliferation. Our results suggest that rabbit appendix follicles develop in two phases: an initial phase of B cell recruitment to nascent follicles, possibly through positive feedback interactions, and a subsequent phase of intrafollicular B cell proliferation stimulated by intestinal commensals. In addition, we found that intestinal commensals stimulate appendix CCL21 mRNA expression and T cell area formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dennis K. Lanning
- *Corresponding Author: Dr. Dennis K. Lanning, Loyola University Chicago, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Building 105, Room 3845, 2160 South 1st Ave, Maywood, IL USA 60153, Phone: (708) 216-3389; Fax: (708) 216-9574,
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Lanning DK, Rhee KJ, Knight KL. Intestinal bacteria and development of the B-lymphocyte repertoire. Trends Immunol 2006; 26:419-25. [PMID: 15967718 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2005.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2005] [Revised: 05/13/2005] [Accepted: 06/09/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrates have a large antibody repertoire with diverse antigen specificities, poised to react to invading pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses and helminths. In some species, microbes such as these are required for development of both diverse antibody and B-lymphocyte repertoires. Recent studies demonstrate that B-lymphocyte expansion, selection and somatic diversification of Ig genes are regulated in these species, in part, by the interaction between commensal intestinal bacteria and gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). These findings indicate that the commensal microbiota can shape the repertoire of peripheral B lymphocytes and can potentially influence the health of the host. Here, how the interactions between commensal microbiota and lymphoid cells of GALT might affect the development of the peripheral B-lymphocyte repertoire is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, 2160 S. First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Lanning DK, Knight KL. Intestinal bacteria and development of the antibody repertoire. Discov Med 2005; 5:393-398. [PMID: 20704879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Extract: The function of the immune system is to protect the host from invasion by pathogenic microorganisms. Accordingly, most studies of host-microbial interactions have focused on pathogenic agents. The most common and intricate host-microbial interactions are, however, those between the host and non-pathogenic microorganisms that have taken up residence within the host, especially within the gastrointestinal tract. The lower gastrointestinal tract of mammals provides one of the best examples in nature of mutually beneficial association between host and colonizing foreign microorganisms. Between 500 and 1,000 microbial species colonize the mammalian colon to a density of approximately 1,000,000,000,000 bacteria per gram of content, comprising in total 100 times more cells than those that make up the host itself. Over the period of evolution, mammals have not only developed immunological tolerance mechanisms to accommodate this resident community, but they also have come to rely on these intestinal commensals for their own normal development. Studies of germfree and gnotobiotic animals revealed that the intestinal microbiota influences many aspects of immunity including development and function of mucosal immunity, development of oral tolerance and generation of the antibody repertoire. A recent study demonstrated that capsular polysaccharide produced by the commensal bacteria, Bacteroides fragilis, stimulates maturation of the developing immune system by contributing to the generation of CD4+ T cells and the proper T helper 1/T helper 2 cytokine balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Rhee KJ, Sethupathi P, Driks A, Lanning DK, Knight KL. Role of commensal bacteria in development of gut-associated lymphoid tissues and preimmune antibody repertoire. J Immunol 2004; 172:1118-24. [PMID: 14707086 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.2.1118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal bacteria are required for development of gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), which mediate a variety of host immune functions, such as mucosal immunity and oral tolerance. In rabbits, the intestinal microflora are also required for developing the preimmune Ab repertoire by promoting somatic diversification of Ig genes in B cells that have migrated to GALT. We studied the mechanism of bacteria-induced GALT development. Bacteria were introduced into rabbits in which the appendix had been rendered germfree by microsurgery (we refer to these rabbits as germfree-appendix rabbits). We then identified specific members of the intestinal flora that promote GALT development. The combination of Bacteroides fragilis and Bacillus subtilis consistently promoted GALT development and led to development of the preimmune Ab repertoire, as shown by an increase in somatic diversification of VDJ-C micro genes in appendix B cells. Neither species alone consistently induced GALT development, nor did Clostridium subterminale, Escherichia coli, or Staphylococcus epidermidis. B. fragilis, which by itself is immunogenic, did not promote GALT development; hence, GALT development in rabbits does not appear to be the result of an Ag-specific immune response. To identify bacterial pathways required for GALT development, we introduced B. fragilis along with stress-response mutants of B. subtilis into germfree-appendix rabbits. We identified two Spo0A-controlled stress responses, sporulation and secretion of the protein YqxM, which are required for GALT development. We conclude that specific members of the commensal, intestinal flora drive GALT development through a specific subset of stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Jong Rhee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Abstract
The immunoglobulin D (IgD) antibody class was, for many years, identified only in primates, rodents and teleost fish. The limited distribution of IgD among vertebrates suggested that IgD is a functionally redundant antibody class that has been lost by many vertebrate species during evolution. The recent identification of IgD in artiodactyls, however, suggests that IgD might be more widely expressed among vertebrates than previously thought, possibly serving a unique role in immunity. IgD expression has been searched for but not detected in rabbits. In order to search directly for a rabbit Cdelta locus encoding the constant region of IgD, we determined the nucleotide sequence of 13.5 kb of genomic DNA downstream of the rabbit Cmu locus. We did not find a rabbit Cdelta locus in this region, but found instead that this region is densely populated by repetitive elements, including a long interspersed DNA element repeat, six C repeats, and two processed pseudogenes. We conclude that the rabbit probably does not express IgD because there is no Cdelta locus immediately downstream of the rabbit Cmu locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Lanning DK, Knight KL. Antibody diversification in the rabbit: historical and contemporary perspectives. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1998; 229:45-57. [PMID: 9479847 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-71984-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Lanning DK, Knight KL. Somatic hypermutation: mutations 3' of rabbit VDJ H-chain genes. The Journal of Immunology 1997. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.159.9.4403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
VDJ genes of rabbit B cells are diversified by a somatic gene conversion-like mechanism in which V(H) gene segments 5' of the VDJ gene serve as donors. To assess whether somatic mutation also contributes to Ab diversification in the rabbit, we searched for mutations 3' of VDJ genes because mutations in this region presumably result from somatic mutation rather than gene conversion. We PCR-amplified and cloned the region extending 534 bp 3' of VDJ genes from splenic DNA of young and adult rabbits. Results of nucleotide sequence analysis of the clones revealed a high mutation frequency (2.4%) within the first 120 bp downstream of VDJ genes. This frequency decreased rapidly with increasing distance 3' of the VDJ genes. The mutations demonstrated both strand bias and dinucleotide preferences characteristic of somatic hypermutation. We conclude that Ab diversity in rabbit is generated not only by somatic gene conversion but also by somatic hypermutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - K L Knight
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Lanning DK, Knight KL. Somatic hypermutation: mutations 3' of rabbit VDJ H-chain genes. J Immunol 1997; 159:4403-7. [PMID: 9379038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
VDJ genes of rabbit B cells are diversified by a somatic gene conversion-like mechanism in which V(H) gene segments 5' of the VDJ gene serve as donors. To assess whether somatic mutation also contributes to Ab diversification in the rabbit, we searched for mutations 3' of VDJ genes because mutations in this region presumably result from somatic mutation rather than gene conversion. We PCR-amplified and cloned the region extending 534 bp 3' of VDJ genes from splenic DNA of young and adult rabbits. Results of nucleotide sequence analysis of the clones revealed a high mutation frequency (2.4%) within the first 120 bp downstream of VDJ genes. This frequency decreased rapidly with increasing distance 3' of the VDJ genes. The mutations demonstrated both strand bias and dinucleotide preferences characteristic of somatic hypermutation. We conclude that Ab diversity in rabbit is generated not only by somatic gene conversion but also by somatic hypermutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Lanning
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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