Understanding the immunopathogenesis of autoimmune diseases by animal studies using gene modulation: A comprehensive review

Autoimmune diseases are clinical syndromes that result from pathogenic inflammatory responses driven by inadequate immune activation by T- and B-cells. Although the exact mechanisms of autoimmune diseases are still elusive, genetic factors also play an important role in the pathogenesis. Recently, with the advancement of understanding of the immunological and molecular basis of autoimmune diseases, gene modulation has become a potential approach for the tailored treatment of autoimmune disorders. Gene modulation can be applied to regulate the levels of interleukins (IL), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), interferon-γ and other inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting these cytokine expressions using short interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) or by inhibiting cytokine signaling using small molecules. In addition, gene modulation delivering anti-inflammatory cytokines or cytokine antagonists showed effectiveness in regulating autoimmunity. In this review, we summarize the potential target genes for gene or immunomodulation in autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and multiple sclerosis (MS). This article will give a new perspective on understanding immunopathogenesis of autoimmune diseases not only in animals but also in human. Emerging approaches to investigate cytokine regulation through gene modulation may be a potential approach for the tailored immunomodulation of some autoimmune diseases near in the future.

Transoral robotic surgery in Eagle's syndrome: our experience on four patients

Eagle's syndrome is characterised by focal pain in the tonsillar fossa on wide mouth opening or head rotation and various accompanying symptoms. While the syndrome is difficult to diagnose, shortening the styloid process via a transoral or transcervical surgical approach has been shown to be the most effective treatment. The aim of this article was to document our experience with a transoral robotic approach to treat Eagle's syndrome and to present the outcomes of four patients. We reviewed the cases of four patients with Eagle's syndrome who underwent transoral robotic surgery (TORS). The average age of patients was 53.75 years, and there were equal numbers of males and females. The styloid processes were reconstructed in 3D from the preoperative CT scans and were measured as an average of 4.18 cm (range 3.3-5.1). The mean set-up time and operation times were less than 10 minutes and 30 minutes, respectively. All patients were completely relieved of symptoms, and were able to restart an oral diet on post-operative day 1. No patient suffered intraoperative or postoperative complication, including cranial nerve injury, haemorrhage, or deep neck infection. In our experience, transoral excision of the styloid process via a robotic approach can be considered as a feasible treatment option for Eagle's syndrome.

Simultaneous quantum dash-well emission in a chirped dash-in-well superluminescent diode with spectral bandwidth >700 nm

We report on the quantitative evidence of simultaneous amplified spontaneous emission from the AlGaInAs/InAs/InP-based quantum-well (Qwell) and quantum-dashes (Qdash) in a multistack dash-in-an-asymmetric-well superluminescent diode heterostructure. As a result, an emission bandwidth (full width at half-maximum) of >700 nm is achieved, covering entire O-E-S-C-L-U communication bands, and a maximum continuous wave output power of 1.3 mW, from this device structure. This demonstration paves a way to bridge entire telecommunication bands through proper optimization of device gain region, bringing significant advances and impact to a variety of cross-disciplinary field applications.

International standards for services activities relating to drinking water supply systems and wastewater systems: implications for developing countries

In developing countries, the PPP (Public-Private-Partnerships) programs have been unsatisfied during the last decade. This study analyzed one of the main causes is low quality of the system. That is, no matter what supports developing countries may get through PPP, reforming water systems can be hardly successful without appropriate system quality. With this background, this study introduces service standards of ISO/TC 224 as an option to improve system quality of developing countries. To analyze its effects, system dynamic modeling was conducted. The results indicated that service standards, working with the PPP programs, can benefit all the stakeholders involved in the water systems in developing countries. Also this indicates further that this approach with service standards deserves more detailed study for improving the ailing water systems in developing countries.

Predicting cancer rates in astronauts from animal carcinogenesis studies and cellular markers

The radiation space environment includes particles such as protons and multiple species of heavy ions, with much of the exposure to these radiations occurring at extremely low average dose-rates. Limitations in databases needed to predict cancer hazards in human beings from such radiations are significant and currently do not provide confidence that such predictions are acceptably precise or accurate. In this article, we outline the need for animal carcinogenesis data based on a more sophisticated understanding of the dose-response relationship for induction of cancer and correlative cellular endpoints by representative space radiations. We stress the need for a model that can interrelate human and animal carcinogenesis data with cellular mechanisms. Using a broad model for dose-response patterns which we term the "subalpha-alpha-omega (SAO) model", we explore examples in the literature for radiation-induced cancer and for radiation-induced cellular events to illustrate the need for data that define the dose-response patterns more precisely over specific dose ranges, with special attention to low dose, low dose-rate exposure. We present data for multiple endpoints in cells, which vary in their radiosensitivity, that also support the proposed model. We have measured induction of complex chromosome aberrations in multiple cell types by two space radiations, Fe-ions and protons, and compared these to photons delivered at high dose-rate or low dose-rate. Our data demonstrate that at least three factors modulate the relative efficacy of Fe-ions compared to photons: (i) intrinsic radiosensitivity of irradiated cells; (ii) dose-rate; and (iii) another unspecified effect perhaps related to reparability of DNA lesions. These factors can produce respectively up to at least 7-, 6- and 3-fold variability. These data demonstrate the need to understand better the role of intrinsic radiosensitivity and dose-rate effects in mammalian cell response to ionizing radiation. Such understanding is critical in extrapolating databases between cellular response, animal carcinogenesis and human carcinogenesis, and we suggest that the SAO model is a useful tool for such extrapolation.

Design and structure-activity relationships of potent and selective inhibitors of blood coagulation factor Xa

The discovery of a series of non-peptide factor Xa (FXa) inhibitors incorporating 3-(S)-amino-2-pyrrolidinone as a central template is described. After identifying compound 4, improvements in in vitro potency involved modifications of the liphophilic group and optimizing the angle of presentation of the amidine group to the S1 pocket of FXa. These studies ultimately led to compound RPR120844, a potent inhibitor of FXa (K(i) = 7 nM) which shows selectivity for FXa over trypsin, thrombin, and several fibrinolytic serine proteinases. RPR120844 is an effective anticoagulant in both the rat model of FeCl(2)-induced carotid artery thrombosis and the rabbit model of jugular vein thrombus formation.

Casein kinase 1 is tightly associated with paired-helical filaments isolated from Alzheimer's disease brain

The protein kinase activity tightly associated with paired helical filaments (PHFs) purified from the brain tissue of individuals with Alzheimer's disease has been characterized in vitro. The activity is shown to phosphorylate casein, an exogenous substrate, with a maximal velocity of approximately 2 nmol/min/mg, suggesting it comprises a significant component of the total protein in the PHF preparation. On the basis of substrate selectivity, isoquinoline sulfonamide inhibitor selectivity, in-gel renaturation assays, and western analysis, the activity consists of closely related members of the alpha branch of the casein kinase 1 family of protein kinases. Because of its tight association with PHFs and its phosphate-directed substrate selectivity, casein kinase 1 is positioned to participate in the pathological hyperphosphorylation of tau protein that is observed in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.

Growth hormone attenuation of epidermal growth factor-induced mitogenesis

Growth hormone (GH) has previously been reported to influence the adipose conversion of 3T3-F442A murine fibroblasts, partly by causing these cells to exit the cell cycle and to become unresponsive to serum-stimulated mitogenesis. To better understand this process, quiescent fibroblasts were treated with fully stimulatory doses (50 nM) of epidermal growth factor (EGF) in the presence or absence of pituitary human GH (hGH) or the phorbol ester phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), which is known to down-regulate EGF receptor activity. EGF-induced DNA synthesis was attenuated by hGH in a dose-dependent manner with an ED50 of approximately 0.1 nM and a maximally effective dose of 10-30 nM. This effect appeared to be the result of inhibition of DNA synthesis and exclusive of a time shift in the initiation of the S phase of the cell cycle. Additionally, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which can act as an important in vivo mediator of GH, failed to mimic the antimitogenic effects of GH. The ability of hGH to antagonize EGF-stimulated mitogenesis did not appear to be due to the down-regulation of EGF receptor mass or to pronounced changes in EGF-induced tyrosine kinase activity. Furthermore, when GH was administered at various times after EGF addition, GH continued to be effective at inhibiting EGF-induced DNA synthesis for up to 9 hr after EGF treatment. Modulation of EGF-induced cell cycle progression was further evidenced by the ability of GH to promote a marked decrease in the EGF-induced expression of D cyclins. In comparison, PMA inhibited EGF-induced DNA synthesis for up to 18 hr after EGF addition and also down-regulated EGF receptor mass and activity; these observations suggest that the mechanism of GH action is largely distinct from that of PMA. We conclude that GH can selectively and dose-dependently modulate EGF receptor-mediated DNA synthesis exclusive of any rapid or extensive effects on EGF receptor mass or tyrosine kinase activity. Furthermore, the capacity of GH to attenuate EGF-induced mitogenesis, even when administered 9 hr after EGF addition, and the GH modulation of EGF-induced expression of D cyclins, suggest that there are GH-induced effects on systems involved in the transition of these fibroblasts through the G1 phase of the cell cycle. In sum, these data support a specific interaction of this somatotropic hormone/cytokine with EGF in the control of cell cycle progression in 3T3-F442A fibroblasts.

Enhanced modulation of keratinocyte motility by transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) relative to epidermal growth factor (EGF)

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha are high-affinity polypeptide ligands for the EGF receptor, which mediates their biologic activities. In this study, we directly compared the actions of both ligands in promoting keratinocyte motility. We found that normal and tumorigenic human keratinocytes responded to activation of the EGF receptor by either EGF or TGF-alpha; however, the two ligands did not elicit identical responses with regard to cell locomotion. TGF-alpha was more effective than EGF at promoting colony dispersion (cell scattering), in vitro wound closure, and single-cell migration as assessed by phagokinetic track analysis. In contrast, EGF and TGF-alpha evoked identical profiles for DNA synthesis with regard to concentration dependence and magnitude of response in normal keratinocytes and in a squamous cell carcinoma line. The overall pattern of tyrosine phosphorylation of intracellular substrates was similar when cells were stimulated with either growth factor; however, a limited number of differences in the kinetics or magnitude of protein phosphorylation were detected in subcellular fractions. These findings demonstrate that two growth factors implicated in promoting mitogenesis and locomotion may elicit divergent responses with regard to one biologic activity while retaining similar responses for other activities. This suggests that ligand-mediated mitogenic responses may not be tightly coupled to motogenic activity and further illustrates the multifunctional roles of polypeptide growth factors.