A critical review of anthropological studies on skeletons from European plague pits of different epochs

In historical times, plague epidemics intermittently ravaged Europe for more than 1,400 years, and still represent a threat in many countries all over the world. A debate is ongoing about the past plague, if it killed randomly in a population or discriminated among persons on the basis of their biological features. To address questions of plague lethality, we reviewed a large number of anthropological studies published in the last twenty years on victims of the past pestilences in Europe. In particular, we focused on data concerning demography (age at death and sex determination), and health status (skeletal biomarkers). We applied to these data a model system based on Multiple Linear Regression, which aimed to discern among possible predictors of sex-selective plague lethality in entire populations, in different periods and regions. Based on available data, we lack evidence for general trends of association between biological features. Differences in sex ratio are more likely due to the original population compositions or to distinct cultural behaviours of the two genders. We concluded that generalizations on biological evidence are not feasible for ancient plagues if we exclude that the infection possibly killed primarily persons between 5-10 and 20-35 years of age.

Ethnic differences in body image perception in patients with type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

The present study compared the prevalence of obesity, fat distribution, body image perception and lifestyle among diabetic African and Albanian immigrants living in Italy, as well as diabetic Italians, aiming to identify health risks and their possible causes.

METHODS

The study sample consisted of 200 diabetic subjects living in Italy. A questionnaire regarding socio-demographic and lifestyle information was administered to participants, and anthropometric measurements and body image perception were assessed. Proper perception of weight status and the degree of dissatisfaction in body image perception were valued.

RESULTS

Italians showed a higher health risk, both with regard to anthropometric characteristics and lifestyle, whereas African immigrants showed a lower one. All of the male groups underestimated their weight and Albanians were the most dissatisfied. Women perceived their current body image as heavier than their desired body image, showing a dissatisfaction toward their weight. Subjects of both sexes belonging to the overweight and obese categories generally underestimated themselves; this was particularly true in obese Africans. People with a higher body mass index were more likely to be dissatisfied than those with a lower one. Body image dissatisfaction increased when people estimated themselves as being overweight. Among lifestyle habits, being an ex-smoker increased body image dissatisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

The underestimation of weight detected in the present study requires attention. Nevertheless, the high percentage of overweight/obese people, coupled with the higher frequency of people dissatisfied with their high weight, suggests an awareness of the problem that could be more effective for weight loss.

Nutrient intake in 5-17-year-old African boys and girls in a rural district of Kenya

OBJECTIVE

To investigate relationships between nutritional status and growth among a sample of schoolchildren and adolescents living in a rural district of Kenya.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional nutritional and anthropometric survey.

SETTING

The data are from schools in a rural district of south-western Kenya.

SUBJECTS

Schoolchildren and adolescents aged between 5 and 17 years of age. Anthropometric measurements and interviews on dietary intake were carried out in 2001 and 2002 on 1,442 subjects.

RESULTS

In this African rural sample, the degree of malnutrition differs with age (increasing with age) and sex (more accentuated in males). Several correlations (P < 0.05) were observed between nutrient adequacy ratios and anthropometric values, particularly in males. There were no correlations between anthropometric characteristics and sodium or vitamin C (in males and females) and vitamin A or potassium (in females).

CONCLUSIONS

Malnutrition was more evident in subjects at puberty. The diet was deficient in sodium, calcium and potassium. Although weight-for-age (WAZ) and BMI-for-age (BMIZ) did not show significant relationships with nutrients in girls, the anthropometric variables were significantly correlated with micronutrients and thiamine in boys. To develop effective intervention strategies, it is vital to understand both how changes in malnutrition do occur and how different factors influence nutrient intake. The different growth pattern of boys and girls could be caused by sexual differences in environmental sensitivity, access to food and energy expenditure.

Food habits and nutritional status of adolescents in Emilia-Romagna, Italy

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity is increasing, with negative medical and psychosocial consequences.

AIMS

This study examines the association between weight status and nutrient intake, sport and leisure habits of middle school students in Bologna (Italy).

METHODS

Anthropometric data (height, weight) of 598 subjects (321 males and 277 females) 11-14 years old were collected. Questionnaires on nutrient intake, sport and leisure behaviour were administered.

RESULTS

Protein, carbohydrate and total fat intakes of the adolescents were higher than the recommended ranges in all age groups and in both sexes. The proportion of energy from protein and total fat was higher than recommended, but the percentage from carbohydrate was lower. A significant proportion of the adolescents had a cholesterol intake above the Italian RDA and lower than recommended intakes for micronutrients. The prevalence of overweight and obesity is higher in males than in females at all ages (overweight: 35.2 vs 31.6 at 11 yrs.; 27.5 vs 20.2 at 12 yrs.; 18.6 vs 17.8 at 13 yrs.; 18.7 vs 10.9 at 14 yrs.; obesity: 5.5 vs 3.2 at 12 yrs.; 3.9 vs 1.1 at 13 yrs.; 5.3 vs 3.6 at 14 yrs.), except in subjects 11 years old (obesity: 7.4 vs 10.5). The overweight and obese adolescents consumed less carbohydrates and less fibre than their normal weight and underweight counterparts.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate an unbalanced diet of the Bologna adolescents, which could damage their health and quality of life.

Growth of Chinese Italian infants in the first 2 years of life

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies have been carried out on the growth of human migrant populations. However, studies on the auxological pattern of Chinese migrant population are limited in Italy.

AIMS

In this paper we examine the growth pattern from birth to 24 months and the body composition of Chinese infants born and living in Bologna (north Italy).

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A longitudinal study was conducted recruiting 224 healthy Chinese children. The anthropometric measurements were collected when the children were immunized. Body mass index (BMI), Arm Muscle Area and Arm Fat Area were calculated.

RESULTS

The growth of Chinese Italian children is adequate, being within the normal limits according to the NCHS reference standard. In comparison with Chinese children living in China and abroad, their body length is greater. Comparisons with growth curves for Italian children (Emilia-Romagna) show that weight and length values are higher in Chinese children than in Italians until 12 months, and comparable thereafter. The weight and length growth velocities are similar to those reported for Italian children.

CONCLUSION

As a whole, the results of the present study support the hypothesis that Chinese children born and living in Italy grow in an appropriate environment to achieve their growth potential.

Influence of various factors on the measurement of multifrequency bioimpedance

Body impedance values at various frequencies (from 1 to 100 kHz) were determined in 104 subjects on seven separate days over a two-week period. The variability of body impedance in different measurement conditions was studied. In particular, the effects of the electrode locations, the ingestion of some substances (sugar, alcohol, mineral salts), body spatial geometry, the time spent in the supine position and the menstrual cycle were assessed. Under standardized conditions (in the morning, in the fasting state, with an empty bladder and with the body in a standardised spatial position), the within-subject day-to-day variability was 3-14 Ohms. Under different experimental conditions, the within-subject variability was generally much higher. This was particularly evident for female subjects. We observed significant mean variations in relation to the different experimental factors introduced one at a time, with the exception of the menstrual cycle. For example, half an hour after the intake of various substances, body impedance had generally increased by 6-17 Ohms in comparison with values in the fasting state. Changes in body impedance during the menstrual cycle, however, were small and never statistically significant. The impedance variations obviously caused significant changes in estimated parameters of body composition. It is concluded that controlled conditions and standardization of multifrequency bioimpedance analysis (MBIA) methods are indispensable for the application of this technique.

Somatotype, role and performance in elite volleyball players

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the present study was to examine the importance of the somatometric components of elite male and female volleyball players in relation to their different game roles and levels of performance.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty-four male athletes (aged 24.7+/-4.4 years) and 244 female athletes (aged 23.1+/-4.4 years) from the Italian A1 and A2 volleyball leagues underwent anthropometric measurements during the 1992-1993 and 1993-1994 seasons. Somatotypes were estimated with the Heath-Carter method.

RESULTS

Marked sexual dimorphism in somatotype was observed in the total sample. The average somatotype for men was 2.2-4.2-3.2 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.9), and for women it was 3.0-3.3-2.9 (SD 0.8-1.0-0.9). The somatotype was significantly different in players at different levels of performance (A1 vs A2 leagues), as it follows: 2.1-4.1-3.3 (SD 0.6-0.8-0.7) vs 2.3-4.3-3.0 (SD 0.7-1.0-0.8) in males; 2.9-3.1-3.0 (SD 0.8-1.0-0.9) vs 3.1-3.5-2.7 (SD 0.8-0.9-0.8) in females. The somatotype was also significantly different in players in different roles. In male sex the mean somatotypes for setters were 2.4-4.5-2.8 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.8), for centres they were 2.0-4.0-3.5 (SD 0.6-1.0-0.8), for spikers they were 2.2-4.3-3.0 (SD 0.6-0.9-0.7), for opposites they were 2.2-4.3-3.1 (SD 0.6-0.9-0.8). In female sex the mean somatotypes for setters were 3.1-3.6-2.5 (SD 0.8-1.0-1.0), for centres they were 2.8-3.1-3.1 (SD 0.8-0.9-0.7), for spikers they were 3.0-3.5-2.8 (SD 0.9-1.0-0.9) and for opposites they were 3.0-3.2-3.0 (SD 0.7-0.9-0.8).

CONCLUSIONS

The physique of athletes in the A1 league is characterized by higher ectomorphy and lower endomorphy and mesomorphy. There is also a slight tendency of male players to a greater homogeneity in somatotype within the group at the maximum level of performance. Moreover somatotype differs in relation to game role in volleyball players of both sexes: the mesomorphic component is maximal in setters, while the ectomorphic component is maximal in centres.

Scoring of nonmetric cranial traits: a methodological approach

The purpose of the present study was to analyse the replicability of the scoring of discontinuous traits. This was assessed on a sample of 100 skulls from the Frassetto collection (Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica Sperimentale of Bologna University) analysed through intraobserver comparisons: the discontinuous traits were determined on the same skulls and by the same observer on 3 separate occasions. The scoring was also assessed through interobserver comparisons: 3 different observers performed an independent survey on the same skulls. The results show that there were no significant differences in the discontinuous trait frequencies between the 3 different scorings by the same observer, but there were sometimes significant differences between different observers. Caution should thus be taken in applying the frequencies of these traits to population research. After an indispensable control of material conditions (subject age included), consideration must be given to standardisation procedures between observers, otherwise this may be an additional source of variability in cranial discontinuous trait scoring.

Scoring of nonmetric cranial traits: a population study

The aims of the present study were: (1) to supply further knowledge about variations in nonmetric cranial traits in relation to sex, age and laterality and (2) to evaluate biological distance between samples from a recent population. The incidence of 18 nonmetric variants of the cranium were determined in 3 adult samples of 394 skulls of known sex from North Sardinia (Sassari, Alghero and Ozieri); for the Sassari sample (n = 200) age at death was also known. Some significant sex differences were observed. Age did not appear to influence the frequency of the discontinuous traits but did for legibility. Side differences may provide important information about environmental influences. The interpopulation analysis indicates a stronger relationship between samples that are geographically closer (Sassari and Alghero), in accordance with other studies, strengthening the hypothesis of the validity of the use of nonmetric traits in the study of the peopling of a territory.

Study on long bones: variation in angular traits with sex, age, and laterality

The biological problems considered in this study are sexual dimorphism in angular osteometric traits, changes in these traits with aging and their bilateral asymmetry in the same individual. The sample comprises the right and left long bones of 200 skeletons (100 males and 100 females) of Sardinian adults (Frasetto collection) for whom the sex and age at death are known. As concerns the sexual dimorphism, some angular traits of upper limb (joint axis angle of the ulna in particular) and the lower limb (condylo-diaphyseal angle of the femur and retroversion angle of the tibia) are significantly different between males and females. Torsion angles of long bones (especially the femur) were found to change with age. In sides comparison revealed a clear right-left asymmetry in our sample. The asymmetry, sexual dimorphism and changes with age are discussed in relation to varying stresses of different living activities. Our data indicate that the angular traits of long bones could be very informative in biomechanical interpretations of human activities based on skeletal remains.

Remarks on methods for estimating body composition parameters: reliability of skinfold and multiple frequency bioelectric impedance methods

A sample of 104 adults underwent testing of body composition by multiple frequency bioelectric impedance analysis (MBIA) under controlled conditions, by anthropometric methods (skinfold thicknesses and BMI) and by the urinary creatinine method. The statistical comparison of body composition parameters (Fat, FFM, TBW), estimated by different methods for the same subjects, pointed out significant differences in mean values. The precision of skinfold and MBIA measurements was evaluated by a second control measurement. Concerning the MBIA, the reliability increased with increasing frequencies. Nevertheless, measurement reliability is higher for skinfolds than for MBIA. Under the condition that there is a real anthropometric technical ability, we affirm that the body composition parameters may at present be better estimated by the skinfold method.

A new technique for measurements on long bones: development of a new instrument and techniques comparison

In this paper we present a new instrument for measurements on long bones. The instrument is based on the use of a digital coordinatometer-goniometer connected to an optical collimator: such device allows angles as well as lengths to be measured. With regard to observing procedures, an innovative method for bone axis location by points has been applied. It is also possible to locate an axis using a symmetry and tangency criterion. As for torsion angles, the proposed technique is absolutely new; it utilizes a reference plane, which the bone must be leaned against, and the symmetry conditions that are generated by rotating the bone around an axis orthogonal to this plane. In order to verify the precision of the new instrument (digital osteogoniometer), several tests were performed. For this purpose we have studied the results of measurements carried out with the new instrument as well as with traditional apparatuses by four different observers on a sample of 10 skeletons (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia of left side). The analysis of intrapersonal and interpersonal differences points out that the new osteogoniometer is more precise in angular measurements than traditional instruments. Moreover the time requested for carrying out measurements prooved to be shorter, above all with regard to torsion angles measurements.

Digital and palmar dermatoglyphics and the population structure of the Upper Bologna Apennine

Analysis of digital and palmar dermatoglyphics in an Italian mountain population was carried out. Dermatoglyphic variability was particularly investigated in samples from four different valleys. Microgeographical differences in qualitative and quantitative traits among valleys were found. The relationship between degree of endogamy and dermatoglyphic differences is discussed. The biological repercussion of isolation in the history of this Apennine population is also pointed out by means of comparisons with a nearby plains population characterized by low inbreeding.

Anthropometric somatotype of Italian sport participants

Somatotypes of 1593 young Italian sport participants (717 males and 876 females) were described and analyzed. The average somatotype for sport participants was 2.7-4.7-2.7 for males and 3.6-3.7-2.8 for females. The predominance of mesomorphy on the other two components was found in all sport-groups examined. This was particularly evident in males for gymnasts and rowers and in females for martial arts competitors. As for sexual dimorphism, females were endo-mesomorphs, while males were balanced mesomorphs. Somatotypes show statistically significant changes with the level of performance in some sport-groups with an increase in the mesomorphic component (in ballgames and martial arts) and in the endomorphic component (in swimming). Comparisons with other sport-groups from literature were greatly limited by several genetic and environmental factors.

Discontinuous traits of the skull: variations on sex, age, laterality

This paper discusses some problems relating to the study and the utilization of discontinuous traits in anthropology. The importance of sex, age and laterality in the manifestation of these traits is discussed on the basis of investigations on a numerous skeletal sample of Siena (Tuscany, Italy) and on data from literature. It is pointed out that sides and sexes should be considered separately. The age of adult subjects seems to be insignificant as the incidence of these traits is concerned.