Novel clinically relevant antibiotic resistance genes associated with sewage sludge and industrial waste streams revealed by functional metagenomic screening

A growing body of evidence indicates that anthropogenic activities can result in increased prevalence of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in bacteria in natural environments. Many environmental studies have used next-generation sequencing methods to sequence the metagenome. However, this approach is limited as it does not identify divergent uncharacterized genes or demonstrate activity. Characterization of ARGs in environmental metagenomes is important for understanding the evolution and dissemination of resistance, as there are several examples of clinically important resistance genes originating in environmental species. The current study employed a functional metagenomic approach to detect genes encoding resistance to extended spectrum β-lactams (ESBLs) and carbapenems in sewage sludge, sludge amended soil, quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) impacted reed bed sediment and less impacted long term curated grassland soil. ESBL and carbapenemase genes were detected in sewage sludge, sludge amended soils and QAC impacted soil with varying degrees of homology to clinically important β-lactamase genes. The flanking regions were sequenced to identify potential host background and genetic context. Novel β-lactamase genes were found in Gram negative bacteria, with one gene adjacent to an insertion sequence ISPme1, suggesting a recent mobilization event and/ the potential for future transfer. Sewage sludge and quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) rich industrial effluent appear to disseminate and/or select for ESBL genes which were not detected in long term curated grassland soils. This work confirms the natural environment as a reservoir of novel and mobilizable resistance genes, which may pose a threat to human and animal health.

Waste water effluent contributes to the dissemination of CTX-M-15 in the natural environment

Objectives

Multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae pose a significant threat to public health. We aimed to study the impact of sewage treatment effluent on antibiotic resistance reservoirs in a river.

Methods

River sediment samples were taken from downstream and upstream of a waste water treatment plant (WWTP) in 2009 and 2011. Third-generation cephalosporin (3GC)-resistant Enterobacteriaceae were enumerated. PCR-based techniques were used to elucidate mechanisms of resistance, with a new two-step PCR-based assay developed to investigate bla_CTX-M-15 mobilization. Conjugation experiments and incompatibility replicon typing were used to investigate plasmid ecology.

Results

We report the first examples of bla_CTX-M-15 in UK river sediment; the prevalence of bla_CTX-M-15 was dramatically increased downstream of the WWTP. Ten novel genetic contexts for this gene were identified, carried in pathogens such as Escherichia coli ST131 as well as indigenous aquatic bacteria such as Aeromonas media. The bla_{CTX-M-15 ­}gene was readily transferable to other Gram-negative bacteria. We also report the first finding of an imipenem-resistant E. coli in a UK river.

Conclusions

The high diversity and host range of novel genetic contexts proves that evolution of novel combinations of resistance genes is occurring at high frequency and has to date been significantly underestimated. We have identified a worrying reservoir of highly resistant enteric bacteria in the environment that poses a threat to human and animal health.

Growth and survival of streptomycete inoculants and extent of plasmid transfer in sterile and nonsterile soil

The growth and survival of strains of Streptomyces lividans and S. violaceolatus in sterile and nonsterile soil was investigated by using inoculated soil microcosms run as batch systems. It was evident that, after an initial short mycelial growth phase of 2 to 3 days, sporulation occurred and inoculants survived as spores. The transfer of a high-copy-number, self-transmissible plasmid, pIJ673, was detected by using intra- and interspecific crosses. The initial detection of transconjugants correlated with the development of the mycelial state of the inoculants (as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy) after 2 days of incubation. Subsequent spread of the plasmid was attributed to spread within existing mycelium followed by sporulation. In natural soil, inoculant numbers remained constant or declined, but plasmid transfer was readily detected.

Assessment of chitin decomposer diversity within an upland grassland

The breakdown of chitin within an acidic upland grassland was studied. The aim was to provide a molecular characterisation of microorganisms involved in chitin degradation in the soil using soil microcosms and buried litter bags containing chitin. The investigation involved an examination of the effects of liming on the microbial communities within the soil and their chitinolytic activity. Microcosm experiments were designed to study the influence of lime and chitin enrichment on the grassland soil bacterial community ex situ under controlled environmental conditions. Bacterial and actinomycete counts were determined and total community DNA was extracted from the microcosms and from chitin bags buried at the experimental site. PCR based on specific 16S rRNA target sequences provided products for DGGE analysis to determine the structure of bacterial and actinomycete communities. Chitinase activity was assessed spectrophotometrically using chitin labelled with remazol brilliant violet. Both liming and chitin amendment increased bacterial and actinomycete viable counts and the chitinase activity. DGGE band patterns confirmed changes in bacterial populations under the influence of both treatments. PCR products amplified from DNA isolated from chitin bags were cloned and sequenced. Only a few matched known species but a prominent coloniser of chitin proved to be Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.

Phylogeny of Streptomyces species and evidence for horizontal transfer of entire and partial antibiotic gene clusters

The phylogenetic relationships of a collection of streptomycete soil isolates and type strains were resolved by sequence analysis of trpB, a housekeeping gene involved in tryptophan biosynthesis. The analysis confirmed that two isolates were recipients in a gene transfer event, demonstrated by phylogenetic incongruency between trpB and strB1 trees. One strain had acquired the entire streptomycin biosynthetic cluster, whilst the other contained only strRAB1, the resistance gene and two flanking genes from the cluster. Sequence analysis of trpB, as part of a polyphasic approach, was a useful tool in determining intra-generic relationships within the genus Streptomyces.

The taxonomy of Streptomyces and related genera

The streptomycetes, producers of more than half of the 10,000 documented bioactive compounds, have offered over 50 years of interest to industry and academia. Despite this, their taxonomy remains somewhat confused and the definition of species is unresolved due to the variety of morphological, cultural, physiological and biochemical characteristics that are observed at both the inter- and the intraspecies level. This review addresses the current status of streptomycete taxonomy, highlighting the value of a polyphasic approach that utilizes genotypic and phenotypic traits for the delimitation of species within the genus.

Biotransformation of selamectin with Streptomyces lydicus SX-1298 using a novel static agar fermentation system with Reemay mesh

A novel approach to biotransformation is described using a solid medium matrix and Reemay mesh that gives efficient biotransformation of compounds with minimal matrices in the ensuing gum solids. Using this approach with a newly isolated biotransforming organism, Streptomyces lydicus SX1298, a series of hydroxylations and an O-demethylation is described for selamectin the first endectocide for cats and dogs.

Molecular detection of bacterial and streptomycete chitinases in the environment

Sets of PCR primers were designed to amplify bacterial chitinases at different levels of specificity. The bacterial chitinase group primers were successful in targeting enzymes classified within the group A glycosyl hydrolases of family 18. The widespread occurrence of group A bacterial chitinases in actinomycetes was demonstrated. Streptomycete chitinase specific primers were designed and a collection of type strains of species changed in the genes Streptomyces were screened and shown to have at least one and usually multiple chitinase genes. The presence of the gene for the chitin binding protein was also demonstrated within the streptomycete type strains. These data indicate that streptomycetes are well equipped to degrade chitin. The detection of group A chitinases in total community DNA is described and a sandy soil shown to contain more than 10 different genes using DGGE to indicate genetic diversity.

Successful strategy for the selection of new strawberry-associated rhizobacteria antagonistic to Verticillium wilt

In order to isolate and characterize new strawberry-associated bacteria antagonistic to the soil-borne pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb., rhizobacterial populations from two different strawberry species, Greenish Strawberry (Fragaria viridis) and Garden Strawberry (F. x ananassa) obtained after plating onto King's B and glycerol-arginine agar, were screened for in vitro antagonism toward V. dahliae. The proportion of isolates with antifungal activity determined in in vitro assay against V. dahliae was higher for the Garden Strawberry than for the Greenish Strawberry. From 300 isolates, 20 isolates with strong antifungal activity were selected characterized by physiological profiling and molecular fingerprinting methods. Diversity among the isolates was characterized with molecular fingerprints using amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) and the more discriminating BOX-PCR fingerprint method. The physiological profiles were well correlated with molecular fingerprinting pattern analysis. Significant reduction of Verticillium wilt by bacterial dipping bath treatment was shown in the greenhouse and in fields naturally infested by V. dahliae. The relative increase of yield ranged from 117% (Streptomyces albidoflavus S1) to 344% (Pseudomonas fluorescens P10) in greenhouse trials, and 113% (Streptomyces albidoflavus S1) to 247% (Pseudomonas fluorescens P6) in field trials. Evaluation resulted in the selection of three effective biocontrol agents (Pseudomonas fluorescens P6, P10, and Streptomyces diastatochromogenes S9) antagonistic to the Verticillium wilt pathogen.

Mathematical analysis of growth and interaction dynamics of streptomycetes and a bacteriophage in soil

We observed the infection cycle of the temperate actinophage KC301 in relation to the growth of its host Streptomyces lividans TK24 in sterile soil microcosms. Despite a large increase in phage population following germination of host spores, there was no observable impact on host population numbers as measured by direct plate counts. The only change in the host population following infection was the establishment of a small subpopulation of KC301 lysogens. The interaction of S. lividans and KC301 in soil was analyzed with a population-dynamic mathematical model to determine the underlying mechanisms of this low susceptibility to phage attack relative to aquatic environments. This analysis suggests that the soil environment is a highly significant component of the phage-host interaction, an idea consistent with earlier observations on the importance of the environment in determining host growth and phage-host dynamics. Our results demonstrate that the accepted phage-host interaction and host life cycle, as determined from agar plate studies and liquid culture, is sufficient for quantitative agreement with observations in soil, using soil-determined rates. There are four significant effects of the soil environment: (i) newly germinated spores are more susceptible to phage lysis than are hyphae of developed mycelia, (ii) substrate mycelia in mature colonies adsorb about 98% of the total phage protecting susceptible young hyphae from infection, (iii) the burst size of KC301 is large in soil (>150, 90% confidence) relative to that observed in liquid culture (120, standard error of the mean [SEM], 6), and (iv) there is no measurable impact on the host in terms of reduced growth by the phage. We hypothesize that spatial heterogeneity is the principal cause of these effects and is the primary determinant in bacterial escape of phage lysis in soil.

Kyanomycin, a complex of unusual anthracycline-phospholipid hybrids from Nonomuria species

A blue secondary metabolite complex, named kyanomycin (2), in addition to epsilon-rhodomycinone (1), was detected in the mycelium extract of Nonomuria sp. NN 22303 by HPLC-diode array and HPLC-electrospray mass spectrometry screening. The chemical structures of the novel compounds were determined to be unusual anthracycline-phosphatidylethanolamine hybrids by spectroscopic and chemical degradation experiments.

Interspecific transfer of Streptomyces giant linear plasmids in sterile amended soil microcosms

The interspecific transfer of two giant linear plasmids was investigated in sterile soil microcosms. Plasmids pRJ3L (322 kb) and pRJ28 (330 kb), both encoding mercury resistance, were successfully transferred in amended soil microcosms from their streptomycete hosts, the isolates CHR3 and CHR28, respectively, to a plasmidless and mercury-sensitive strain, Streptomyces lividans TK24. Transconjugants of S. lividans TK24 were first observed after 2 to 3 days of incubation at 30 degrees C, which corresponded to the time taken for the formation of mycelia in soil. Transfer frequencies were 4.8 x 10(-4) and 3.6 x 10(-5) CFU/donor genome for pRJ3L and pRJ28, respectively. Transconjugants were analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for the presence of plasmids, and plasmid identity was confirmed by restriction digests. Total genomic DNA digests confirmed that transconjugants were S. lividans TK24. The mercury resistance genes were shown to be on the plasmid in the transconjugants by hybridization analysis and were still functional. This is the first demonstration of transfer of giant linear plasmids in sterile soil microcosms. Giant linear plasmids were detected in many Streptomyces spp. isolated from mercury-contaminated sediments from Boston Harbor (United States), Townsville Harbor (Australia), and the Sali River (Tucuman, Argentina). Mercury resistance genes were shown to be present on some of these plasmids. Our findings that giant linear plasmids can be transferred between Streptomyces spp. and are common in environmental Streptomyces isolates suggest that these plasmids are important in gene transfer between streptomycetes in the environment.

Novel streptopyrroles from Streptomyces rimosus with bacterial protein histidine kinase inhibitory and antimicrobial activities

A series of halogenated pyrrolo [2,1-b] [1,3] benzoxazines (1 approximately 9) was isolated from fermentations of an actinomycete strain X10/78/978 (NCIMB40808), identified as Streptomyces rimosus, during a microbial extract screening programme to identify inhibitors of bacterial histidine kinase. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic methods including the HMQC, HMBC and INADEQUATE NMR experiments. The structure of 1 was confirmed by X-ray crystallographic studies. Compounds 5 and 6 were produced in fermentations in the presence of NaBr and NaI respectively. The most abundant member of the series, streptopyrrole, 1, inhibited the nitrogen regulator II (NRII) histidine kinase from Escherichia coli with an IC50 of 20 microM and exhibited antimicrobial activity against a range of bacteria and fungi.

Comparison of different methods for the isolation and purification of total community DNA from soil

The efficiency and reproducibility of DNA extraction from soil was tested for variations in lytic and purification treatments and their effect on yield and purity of DNA. The extraction yield was improved by increasing the concentration of EDTA or monovalent ions in isolation buffers, by the introduction of mechanical lysis treatments, and by the use of ethanol precipitation in place of PEG precipitation. Purity was improved using buffers with decreasing concentration of EDTA or by reducing the ionic strength of the buffer, and by all mechanical treatments. No lytic treatment was efficient on its own, the highest purity was achieved using Crombach buffer and a combination of bead-beating with lysozyme and SDS lysis followed by potassium acetate and PEG precipitation, phenol/chloroform purification, isopropanol precipitation, and spermine-HCl precipitation. Sonication sheared the DNA more than bead-beating. Lysozyme and SDS lysis without any mechanical treatments allowed isolation of larger fragments (40-90 kb). Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of DNA isolated using a range of lytic treatments revealed alterations in band patterns which might reflect differences in the efficiency of lytic treatments.

Transfer of streptomycin biosynthesis gene clusters within streptomycetes isolated from soil

Streptomyces strains isolated from soil were found to possess various numbers of genes from the streptomycin biosynthesis cluster. The strains missing genes from the cluster also lacked the ability to produce streptomycin. Two of the isolates which contain only part of the cluster are apparently recipients of a gene transfer event. The implications for the role of gene transfer in antibiotic evolution are discussed.

Phenotypic, genotypic and pathogenic variation among streptomycetes implicated in common scab disease

This study examines the diversity of streptomycetes causing potato scab using phenotypic identification, 16S rRNA sequence, and pathogenicity measurements. Pathogenicity did not correlate well with taxonomic identification, nor with phylogenetic position. This result suggests that neither phenotypic nor 16S characteristics are diagnostic for scab-causing strains. Additionally, phenotypic characterizations were not fully consistent with phylogenetic relationships. This incongruency highlights the difficulties of taxonomy within the streptomycetes and affirms the need for better integration of genetic and phenotypic characters in the systematics of this group.

Evidence for transfer of antibiotic-resistance genes in soil populations of streptomycetes

Phylogenetic analysis was used to evaluate the hypothesis of gene transfer in streptomycetes, many of which are antibiotic producers. The diversity and possible origins of streptomycin-resistance genes was investigated for a population of Streptomyces strains isolated from a site in Brazil where antibiotic production had previously been implicated The analysis provides compelling evidence for the transfer of these genes. Examination of other Streptomyces-type strains also reveals a scattered distribution of streptomycin producers with respect to the overall phylogeny. These results suggest that horizontal gene transfer may be an important factor in the evolution of antibiotic genes in streptomycetes.

Analysis of actinomycete communities by specific amplification of genes encoding 16S rRNA and gel-electrophoretic separation in denaturing gradients

A group-specific primer, F243 (positions 226 to 243, Escherichia coli numbering), was developed by comparison of sequences of genes encoding 16S rRNA (16S rDNA) for the detection of actinomycetes in the environment with PCR and temperature or denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE or DGGE, respectively). The specificity of the forward primer in combination with different reverse ones was tested with genomic DNA from a variety of bacterial strains. Most actinomycetes investigated could be separated by TGGE and DGGE, with both techniques giving similar results. Two strategies were employed to study natural microbial communities. First, we used the selective amplification of actinomycete sequences (E. coli positions 226 to 528) for direct analysis of the products in denaturing gradients. Second, a nested PCR providing actinomycete-specific fragments (E. coli positions 226 to 1401) was used which served as template for a PCR when conserved primers were used. The products (E. coli positions 968 to 1401) of this indirect approach were then separated by use of gradient gels. Both approaches allowed detection of actinomycete communities in soil. The second strategy allowed the estimation of the relative abundance of actinomycetes within the bacterial community. Mixtures of PCR-derived 16S rDNA fragments were used as model communities consisting of five actinomycetes and five other bacterial species. Actinomycete products were obtained over a 100-fold dilution range of the actinomycete DNA in the model community by specific PCR; detection of the diluted actinomycete DNA was not possible when conserved primers were used. The methods tested for detection were applied to monitor actinomycete community changes in potato rhizosphere and to investigate actinomycete diversity in different soils.

Molecular detection of streptomycin-producing streptomycetes in Brazilian soils

Actinomycetes were isolated from soybean rhizosphere soil collected as two field sites in Brazil. All the isolates were identified as Streptomyces species and were screened for streptomycin production and the presence of two genes, strA and strB1, known to be involved in streptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces griseus. Antibiotic resistance profiles were determined for 53 isolates from cultivated and uncultivated sites, and approximately half the strains were streptomycin resistance. Clustering by the unweighted pair group method with averages indicated the presence of two major clusters, with the majority of resistant strains from cultivated sites being placed in cluster 1. Only representatives from this cluster contained strA. Streptomycetes containing strA and strB1 were phenotypically diverse, and only half could be assigned to known species. Sequence comparison of 16S rRNA and trpBA (tryptophan synthetase) genes revealed that streptomycin- producing streptomycetes were phylogenetically diverse. It appeared that a population of streptomycetes had colonized the rhizosphere and that a proportion of these were capable of streptomycin production.

Physical map of the genome of Planctomyces limnophilus, a representative of the phylogenetically distinct planctomycete lineage

A physical map of the chromosome of Planctomyces limnophilus DSM 3776T was constructed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis techniques. A total of 32 cleavage sites for the rare-cutting restriction endonucleases PacI, PmeI, and SwaI were located on the chromosome, which was shown to be circular and approximately 5.2 Mbp in size. An extrachromosomal element was detected but was found not to be cleaved by any of the enzymes used in the analysis of the chromosome. The order of the fragments on the chromosome was determined by hybridization of excised, labelled restriction fragments to Southern blots of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis-separated restriction digests. Seven genetic markers, rrs, rrl, atpD, tuf, gyrB, rpoD, and dnaK, on the chromosome were located by hybridization. Probes for all genetic markers were obtained by PCR. For five of these markers, probes were constructed by PCR with degenerate primers targeting conserved sequences. The arrangement of the genetic markers was compared with that found in other bacteria.

Selective recovery of Streptosporangium fragile from soil by indirect immunomagnetic capture

A polyclonal antibody raised to Streptosporangium fragile spores reacted strongly and specifically with the immunizing strain and to a number of related species of Streptosporangium, as determined by dot immunoblotting. An indirect immunomagnetic capture method was developed for the recovery of the target organism from sterile and non-sterile soil, using sheep anti-rabbit M-280 Dynabeads. The effects of different soil blocking agents, antibody labelling concentrations and spore/Dynabead capture times on the recovery of S. fragile spores were investigated. Pre-blocking of antibody binding sites within the soil, with either 2% partially hydrolysed gelatin or 10% skimmed milk, was essential prior to immunomagnetic capture. Increasing the capture time from 15 to 60 min did not affect spore recovery; however, a 10-fold decline in the magnetic bead concentration did result in a significantly lower recovery of spores from soil. S. fragile was selectively enriched (1:190-fold) when present as a mixed population with Arthrobacter oxydans in sterile soil. The indirect immunomagnetic capture method was used to selectively recover S. fragile spores seeded into non-sterile soil, although some background binding of non-target bacteria was noted. The target was successfully recovered from a sterile soil microcosm after 14 d incubation and the capture rate was increased by the inclusion of an initial soil dispersion and biomass concentration procedure, using the ion-exchange resin Chelex 100.

Albaflavenone, a sesquiterpene ketone with a zizaene skeleton produced by a streptomycete with a new rope morphology

A novel antibiotic alpha,beta-unsaturated sesquiterpene ketone, albaflavenone with a zizaene skeleton was isolated from a morphologically novel, highly odorous Streptomyces species which was identified with the species group S. albidoflavus, cluster 1. The new compound, partly responsible for the odour, was assigned the structure of 2R',6,7,7-tetramethyl-1S',8R'- tricyclo-[6.2.1.0(1,5)]undec-5-en-4-one based on spectroscopic studies including 2D NMR (COSY, HETCOR, ROESY, NOE-difference) experiments.

Novel bioactive compounds from actinomycetes

Actinomycetes form an enormous reservoir of secondary metabolites and enzymes. The potential for exploiting rare actinomycetes is highlighted by the discovery of novel compounds from strains of Spirillospora and Nocardioides. Novel compounds of well known classes of antibiotics, such as polyenes, continue to be discovered. For compounds containing a chromophore, the analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode-array detector enables the elimination of producers of known compounds and facilitates the discovery of novel compounds or derivatives. The complexity of the regulatory mechanisms is illustrated by glutamine synthetase. The characterization of thermostable amylolytic, lignolytic, peroxidase and neuramidase activities, and the isolation of novel cellulolytic actinomycetes clearly demonstrate the potential of Actinomycetes as producers of enzymes.

Viable but non-culturable salmonellas in soil

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a microwell fluorescent antibody (FA) direct count method have been developed for the monitoring of salmonellas in soil. Both methods have a minimum detection level of ca 10(6) cells per gram of soil. The FA direct count method gave a linear recovery for the inoculum range 10(6)-10(9) cells per gram of soil. When monitored by plate counts the survival of salmonellas was greater in a sterile than in a non-sterile soil. Evidence was found for the production of viable but non-culturable salmonellas in non-sterile soil; plate counts dropped rapidly with time, but FA direct counts and ELISA remained level. The salmonella cells became progressively smaller and rounder with time. Dead salmonella cells introduced into soil rapidly disappeared.

An ion-exchange based extraction method for the detection of salmonellas in soil

A method that uses a cation-exchange resin (Chelex 100) and differential centrifugation for the extraction and detection of salmonellas in soil was developed. The extraction efficiencies of a range of materials were examined and Chelex plus polyethylene glycol was identified as the best combination. Shake speeds, shake times and differential centrifugation speeds were selected to give an optimum salmonella recovery. The Chelex method accurately enumerated 1 cell per 10 g of nonsterile soil within 24 h. Addition of glycerol to soil samples enabled storage at -70 degrees C for 85 d without significant decreases in salmonella numbers. The Oxoid Salmonella Rapid Test (SRT) could be used to pre-screen large numbers of soil samples for the presence of salmonellas, prior to analysis by the Chelex method. The SRT method detected Salmonella typhimurium at levels as low as 2.5 cells per 10 g of nonsterile soil.

The distribution of DNA sequences hybridizing with antibiotic production and resistance gene probes within type strains and wild isolates of Streptomyces species

Total DNA preparations from 74 antibiotic-producing type strains and 102 natural Streptomyces isolates were examined by dot blots for homology to 6 antibiotic production and resistance genes. Pattern diversity of hybridizations decreased as stringency increased from 65% to 85%. There were 146 unique profiles at 65% stringency with 13 repeated patterns, whilst there were only 14 unique and 11 repeated profiles at 85% stringency. Most of the strains which hybridized at 85% reacted with one or two probes although a few strains showed multiple homologies. This data was used to cluster strains and the groups defined were examined for phenotypic antibiotic resistance. Producers of certain classes of antibiotics clustered to specific groups and some gene homologies were more common amongst strains which produced similar antibiotics.

Gene transfer between streptomycetes in soil

The growth and activity of Streptomyces violaceolatus and Streptomyces lividans was studied in soil under controlled conditions. The life cycle was followed under differing nutrient regimes and the fate of plasmid- and phage-borne genes determined by direct and indirect techniques. Methods were developed for the direct monitoring of plasmid DNA extracted from soil which allowed differentiation of the cellular location of plasmid DNA between mycelium and spores. In a dynamic, nutrient-fed soil microcosm, inoculants survived poorly, but a specific stage was defined by direct and indirect methods when the inoculants were most active and this correlated with the detection of gene transfer events. Plasmid transfer, phage infection and lysogeny only occurred to a significant extent within this stage at days 15-17 during a 60-day incubation. Estimates based on plasmid DNA recovery indicated that viable counts underestimated spore and mycelial propagules by a factor of greater than 100.

Taxonomic Status of Kitasatosporia, and Proposed Unification with Streptomyces on the Basis of Phenotypic and 16S rRNA Analysis and Emendation of Streptomyces Waksman and Henrici 1943, 339AL

Species classified within the genus Kitasatosporia share many of the phenotypic characteristics typical of streptomycetes. By using a probabilistic identification scheme, they were identified with Streptomyces exfoliatus cluster 5, a species group within Streptomyces. The four species studied hybridized with a 16S rRNA genus probe for Streptomyces spp., indicating a close relationship between the two genera. The kitasatosporias were resistant to selected polyvalent streptomycete phages tested. Quantitative analysis showed that meso-diaminopimelic acid varied from 49 to 89% in Kitasatosporia species and from 1 to 16% in Streptomyces species depending on growth conditions. On the basis of 16S rRNA analysis, it is proposed to reduce Kitasatosporia to synonymy with Streptomyces. As a result, the new names proposed are Streptomyces mediocidicus comb. nov., Streptomyces phosalacineus comb. nov., Streptomyces setae comb. nov., and Streptomyces griseolosporeus comb. nov., nom. nov.

Streptomyces marker plasmids for monitoring survival and spread of streptomycetes in soil

Plasmid constructs pNW1 through pNW6 containing a controllable xylE gene (for catechol 2,3-dioxygenase) were introduced into Streptomyces lividans strains to provide a selectable marker system. xylE functions in S. lividans under the control of bacteriophage lambda promoters lambda pL and lambda pR. Thermoregulated expression of xylE is provided through the lambda repressor cI857. Catechol 2,3-dioxygenase activity was increased 2.8-fold from plasmid construct pNW2 (lambda pL, xylE, cI857) and 9.5- and 7.4-fold from constructs pNW3 (lambda pR, xylE, cI857) and pNW5 (lambda pR, xylE, cI857), respectively, when the temperature was shifted from 28 degrees C to 37 degrees C. The stability of the constructs varied from 4.7% for pNW2 to 99.4% for pNW4 (lambda pL, xylE) over two rounds of sporulation. Marked S. lividans strains released into soil systems retained the XylE phenotype for more than 80 days, depending on the marker plasmid, when examined by a selective plating method. Furthermore, S. lividans harboring plasmid pNW5 was detectable by nucleic acid hybridization at less than 10 CFU g-1 (dry weight) of soil as mycelium and 10(3) CFU g-1 (dry weight) of soil as spores with the xylE marker DNA extracted from soil and amplified by using the polymerase chain reaction.

Mathematical Model of Plasmid Transfer between Strains of Streptomycetes in Soil Microcosms

A mathematical model was developed and used to simulate the long-term dynamics of growth and plasmid transfer in nutrient-limited soil microcosms of Streptomyces lividans TK24 carrying chromosomal resistance to streptomycin, S. lividans 1326; and S. violaceolatus ISP5438. Donor, recipient, and transconjugant survival was modelled by an extension to the Verhulst logistic equation which takes account of nutrient limitation, and plasmid transfer was modelled by a mass action model. Rate parameters were derived from experimental data on the early stages of the development of sterile systems. The model predicted donor, recipient, and transconjugant populations in 2.4-h (0.1-day) steps and was tested against the long-term behavior of the experimental sterile systems and independent experimental data on nonsterile systems. Bacteria were periodically enumerated onto selective media over a 20-day period. The effects of long-term nutrient-moisture depletion were correctly predicted.

New Method for Extraction of Streptomycete Spores from Soil and Application to the Study of Lysogeny in Sterile Amended and Nonsterile Soil

A new method for the isolation and enumeration of streptomycete spores from soil was developed. This method makes use of a cation-exchange resin to disperse soil particles. It allowed the detection of 10 spores in 100 g of sterile soil, while ca. 10 3 could be accurately enumerated in 100 g. This method was applied to studying the fate of a marked actinophage in soil. In sterile amended and nonsterile soil, relatively high numbers of actinophages were only found during the first few days of the experiment when the host streptomycete was in the mycelial form. Later, after sporulation, lysogens could be detected in sterile amended soil and could still be found 60 days after inoculation. Although no lysogens were found in nonsterile soil, the introduced phage could still be detected in the free state after 60 days, albeit at a low titer.

Identification of some streptomycetes producing oxytetracycline

A study was made of Streptomyces rimosus and mutant strains to compare the phenotype of high and low oxytetracycline producers. Strains were identified using a probabilistic identification matrix for the genus Streptomyces. Mutant strains separated into two groups: high-titre strains and blocked mutants. The former identified with the S. rimosus cluster whereas the latter were not identified. Two further oxytetracycline producers identified with the Streptomyces lydicus cluster.

Numerical classification of Streptomyces and related genera

Four hundred and seventy-five strains, which included 394 type cultures of Streptomyces and representatives of 14 other actinomycete genera, were studied. Overall similarities of these strains for 139 unit characters were determined by the SSM and SJ coefficients and clustering by the UPGMA algorithm. Test error and overlap between the phena defined were within acceptable limits. Cluster-groups were defined by the SSM coefficient at the 70.1% similarity (S) level and by the SJ coefficient at the 50% S-level. Clusters were distinguished at the 77.5% SSM and 63% SJ S-levels. Groupings obtained with the two coefficients were generally similar, but there were some changes in the definition and membership of cluster-groups and clusters. The phenetic data obtained, together with those from previous diverse studies, indicated that the genera Actinopycnidium, Actinosporangium, Chainia, Elytrosporangium, Kitasatoa and Microellobosporia should be reduced to synonyms of Streptomyces, while Intrasporangium, Nocardioides and Streptoverticillium remained as distinct genera in the family Streptomycetaceae. Nocardiopsis dassonvillei also showed strong phenetic affinity to Streptomyces, despite its chemotaxonomic differences. Actinomadura sensu stricto was phenetically distinguishable from Streptomyces and 'Nocardia' mediterranea was recognized as a taxon distinct from both these genera and from Nocardia sensu stricto. Most of the Streptomyces type cultures fell into one large cluster-group. At the 77.5% SSM S-level, they were recovered in 19 major and 40 minor clusters, with 18 strains recovered as single member clusters. The status of the latter as species was therefore confirmed. Most of the minor clusters, consisting of two to five strains, can also be regarded as species. The major clusters varied in size (from 6 to 71 strains) and in there homogeneity. Therefore, it is suggested that they be regarded as species-groups until further information is available. The results provide a basis for the reduction of the large number of Streptomyces species which have been described. They also demonstrate that the previous use of a limited number of subjectively chosen characters to define species-groups or species has resulted in artificial classifications.

A probability matrix for identification of some Streptomycetes

The character state data obtained for clusters defined at the 77.5% SSM similarity level in the phenetic numerical classification described by Williams et al. (1983) were used to construct a probabilistic identification matrix. The 23 phena included were the major clusters (19 Streptomyces, 2 Streptoverticillium and 'Nocardia' mediterranea) and one minor cluster (Streptomyces fradiae). The characters most diagnostic for these clusters were selected using Sneath's CHARSEP and DIACHAR programs. The resulting matrix consisted of 41 characters x 23 phena. Identification scores, determined by Sneath's MATIDEN program were used to evaluate the matrix. Theoretical assessment was achieved by determination of the cluster overlap (OVERMAT), the identification scores for the Hypothetical Medium Organism of each cluster (MOSTTYP), and the scores for randomly selected cluster representatives using the classification data of Williams et al. (1983). The matrix was evaluated practically by the independent re-determination of the characters for the same cluster representatives, which also provided a measure of test error. Finally it was used to identify unknown isolates from a range of habitats. The results showed that the matrix was theoretically sound. Test error was within acceptable limits and did not distort identifications. Of the unknown isolates, 80% were clearly identified with a cluster. It is suggested that the matrix could form the basis for a more objective identification and grouping of the large number of Streptomyces species which have been described.