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Marilac Soalheiro L, de Jesus Brandão B, Paiva RVN, Dias Carvalho L, Menezes Paranhos RD, Ribeiro Barbosa PC, Guerrero-Vargas NN, Tamura EK. Familiarity of Brazilian psychologists with basic concepts in sleep science and chronobiology. Chronobiol Int 2023; 40:1072-1083. [PMID: 37661786 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2023.2250870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Desynchronization of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake patterns impacts biochemical, physiological, and behavioral functions, including mental processes. The complex relationship between circadian rhythms and mental health makes it challenging to determine causality between circadian desynchronization and mental disorders. Regarding the fact that psychologists act as the front line for initial mental health care, we aimed to assess the knowledge and use of sleep science and basic chronobiology by professional psychologists in Brazil. Data were collected via an online questionnaire completed by 1384 professional psychologists between October 2018 and May 2019. Our findings revealed that ±80% of psychologists reported that at least half of their patients presented some sleep-related complaints; however, only ±27% routinely inquired about sleep quality even in the absence of patient complaints. Additionally, only ±66% initiated treatments to understand these complaints, potentially influenced by the lack of prior academic exposure to biological rhythms as reported by ±76% of Brazilian psychologists interviewed. Importantly, ±15% did not believe in an association between mental health and biological rhythms, and even a significant ±67% were unfamiliar with the term chronobiology and ±63% were not able to describe any other biological rhythm except for the sleep-wake cycle. These results demonstrate that fundamental concepts in chronobiology and sleep science are unknown to a substantial proportion of Brazilian psychologists. In conclusion, we propose that this subject could be more effectively integrated into psychologists' academic training, potentially promoting benefits through the incorporation of a chronobiological approach in mental health practice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lázaro Dias Carvalho
- Department of Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | | | - Paulo César Ribeiro Barbosa
- Department of Human Sciences and Philosophy, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil
| | - Natali N Guerrero-Vargas
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional Autonóma de México, México City, México
| | - Eduardo Koji Tamura
- Department of Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
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Marçola M, da Silveira Cruz-Machado S, Fernandes PACM, Monteiro AWA, Markus RP, Tamura EK. Endothelial cell adhesiveness is a function of environmental lighting and melatonin level. J Pineal Res 2013; 54:162-9. [PMID: 22812624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2012.01025.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The endothelial layer regulates the traffic of cells and substances between the blood and tissues and plays a central role in the mounting of an inflammatory response. We have recently shown that inhibition of the nocturnal melatonin surge during the mounting of an inflammatory response primes endothelial cells to a highly reactive state, increasing the expression of adhesion molecules and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) as well as the in vitro adherence of leukocytes. Here, we investigated whether physiological variations in the plasma melatonin levels owing to the light/dark environmental cycle could also prime the reactive state of endothelial cells. Cultured endothelial cells (16-20 days) obtained from rats killed during the daytime adhere more neutrophils, expressed more adhesion molecules and iNOS, and had a higher content of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) translocated to the nuclei. We also evaluated the expression of 84 genes (using real-time PCR array) related to the innate inflammatory response and observed a higher expression of 19 genes in cultures obtained during the daytime. In addition, the only gene that was highly expressed in cells obtained from rats killed during nighttime was one that encodes a protein that negatively modulates inflammatory response. In conclusion, the daily rhythm of melatonin also primes the ability of endothelial cells to adhere to neutrophils. This new approach for evaluating the influence of the donor on cells maintained in culture should have applications for the standardization of cell banks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Marçola
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Muxel SM, Pires-Lapa MA, Monteiro AWA, Cecon E, Tamura EK, Floeter-Winter LM, Markus RP. NF-κB drives the synthesis of melatonin in RAW 264.7 macrophages by inducing the transcription of the arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferase (AA-NAT) gene. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52010. [PMID: 23284853 PMCID: PMC3528721 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate that during inflammatory responses the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) induces the synthesis of melatonin by macrophages and that macrophage-synthesized melatonin modulates the function of these professional phagocytes in an autocrine manner. Expression of a DsRed2 fluorescent reporter driven by regions of the aa-nat promoter, that encodes the key enzyme involved in melatonin synthesis (arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferase), containing one or two upstream κB binding sites in RAW 264.7 macrophage cell lines was repressed when NF-κB activity was inhibited by blocking its nuclear translocation or its DNA binding activity or by silencing the transcription of the RelA or c-Rel NF-κB subunits. Therefore, transcription of aa-nat driven by NF-κB dimers containing RelA or c-Rel subunits mediates pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced melatonin synthesis in macrophages. Furthermore, melatonin acts in an autocrine manner to potentiate macrophage phagocytic activity, whereas luzindole, a competitive antagonist of melatonin receptors, decreases macrophage phagocytic activity. The opposing functions of NF-κB in the modulation of AA-NAT expression in pinealocytes and macrophages may represent the key mechanism for the switch in the source of melatonin from the pineal gland to immune-competent cells during the development of an inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Marcia Muxel
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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da Silveira Cruz-Machado S, Pinato L, Tamura EK, Carvalho-Sousa CE, Markus RP. Glia-pinealocyte network: the paracrine modulation of melatonin synthesis by tumor necrosis factor (TNF). PLoS One 2012; 7:e40142. [PMID: 22768337 PMCID: PMC3388049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The pineal gland, a circumventricular organ, plays an integrative role in defense responses. The injury-induced suppression of the pineal gland hormone, melatonin, which is triggered by darkness, allows the mounting of innate immune responses. We have previously shown that cultured pineal glands, which express toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), produce TNF when challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here our aim was to evaluate which cells present in the pineal gland, astrocytes, microglia or pinealocytes produced TNF, in order to understand the interaction between pineal activity, melatonin production and immune function. Cultured pineal glands or pinealocytes were stimulated with LPS. TNF content was measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TLR4 and TNFR1 expression were analyzed by confocal microscopy. Microglial morphology was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. In the present study, we show that although the main cell types of the pineal gland (pinealocytes, astrocytes and microglia) express TLR4, the production of TNF induced by LPS is mediated by microglia. This effect is due to activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathway. In addition, we observed that LPS activates microglia and modulates the expression of TNFR1 in pinealocytes. As TNF has been shown to amplify and prolong inflammatory responses, its production by pineal microglia suggests a glia-pinealocyte network that regulates melatonin output. The current study demonstrates the molecular and cellular basis for understanding how melatonin synthesis is regulated during an innate immune response, thus our results reinforce the role of the pineal gland as sensor of immune status.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciana Pinato
- Department of Speech-Language and Hearing Therapy, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Marília, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Koji Tamura
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Regina P. Markus
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Hebeda CB, Teixeira SA, Tamura EK, Muscará MN, de Mello SBV, Markus RP, Farsky SHP. Nitric oxide modulates lipopolysaccharide-induced endothelial platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression via interleukin-10. Clin Exp Immunol 2011; 165:172-9. [PMID: 21564091 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04396.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We have shown previously that nitric oxide (NO) controls platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM-1) expression on both neutrophils and endothelial cells under physiological conditions. Here, the molecular mechanism by which NO regulates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endothelial PECAM-1 expression and the role of interleukin (IL)-10 on this control was investigated. For this purpose, N-(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 20 mg/kg/day for 14 days dissolved in drinking water) was used to inhibit both constitutive (cNOS) and inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) synthase activities in LPS-stimulated Wistar rats (5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). This treatment resulted in reduced levels of serum NO. Under this condition, circulating levels of IL-10 was enhanced, secreted mainly by circulating lymphocytes, dependent on transcriptional activation, and endothelial PECAM-1 expression was reduced independently on reduced gene synthesis. The connection between NO, IL-10 and PECAM-1 expression was examined by incubating LPS-stimulated (1 µg/ml) cultured endothelial cells obtained from naive rats with supernatant of LPS-stimulated lymphocytes, which were obtained from blood of control or L-NAME-treated rats. Supernatant of LPS-stimulated lymphocytes obtained from L-NAME-treated rats, which contained higher levels of IL-10, reduced LPS-induced PECAM-1 expression by endothelial cells, and this reduction was reversed by adding the anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody. Therefore, an association between NO, IL-10 and PECAM-1 was found and may represent a novel mechanism by which NO controls endothelial cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Hebeda
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Carvalho-Sousa CE, da Silveira Cruz-Machado S, Tamura EK, Fernandes PACM, Pinato L, Muxel SM, Cecon E, Markus RP. Molecular basis for defining the pineal gland and pinealocytes as targets for tumor necrosis factor. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2011; 2:10. [PMID: 22654792 PMCID: PMC3356111 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2011.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The pineal gland, the gland that translates darkness into an endocrine signal by releasing melatonin at night, is now considered a key player in the mounting of an innate immune response. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), the first pro-inflammatory cytokine to be released by an inflammatory response, suppresses the translation of the key enzyme of melatonin synthesis (arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferase, Aanat). Here, we show that TNF receptors of the subtype 1 (TNF-R1) are expressed by astrocytes, microglia, and pinealocytes. We also show that the TNF signaling reduces the level of inhibitory nuclear factor kappa B protein subtype A (NFKBIA), leading to the nuclear translocation of two NFKB dimers, p50/p50, and p50/RelA. The lack of a transactivating domain in the p50/p50 dimer suggests that this dimer is responsible for the repression of Aanat transcription. Meanwhile, p50/RelA promotes the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the production of nitric oxide, which inhibits adrenergically induced melatonin production. Together, these data provide a mechanistic basis for considering pinealocytes a target of TNF and reinforce the idea that the suppression of pineal melatonin is one of the mechanisms involved in mounting an innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Emanuele Carvalho-Sousa
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Eduardo Koji Tamura
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | - Pedro A. C. M. Fernandes
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luciana Pinato
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Therapy, Universidade Estadual PaulistaMarília, Brazil
| | - Sandra M. Muxel
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | - Erika Cecon
- Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade de São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
| | - Regina P. Markus
- *Correspondence: Regina P. Markus, Laboratory of Chronopharmacology, Institute of Bioscience, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, Travessa 14, 05508-900 São Paulo, Brazil. e-mail:
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da Silveira Cruz-Machado S, Carvalho-Sousa CE, Tamura EK, Pinato L, Cecon E, Fernandes PACM, de Avellar MCW, Ferreira ZS, Markus RP. TLR4 and CD14 receptors expressed in rat pineal gland trigger NFKB pathway. J Pineal Res 2010; 49:183-92. [PMID: 20586888 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2010.00785.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor-kappa B (NFKB), a pivotal player in inflammatory responses, is constitutively expressed in the pineal gland. Corticosterone inhibits pineal NFKB leading to an enhancement of melatonin production, while tumor necrosis factor (TNF) leads to inhibition of Aa-nat transcription and the production of N-acetylserotonin in cultured glands. The reduction in nocturnal melatonin surge favors the mounting of the inflammatory response. Despite these data, there is no clear evidence of the ability of the pineal gland to recognize molecules that signal infection. This study investigated whether the rat pineal gland expresses receptors for lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the endotoxin from the membranes of Gram-negative bacteria, and to establish the mechanism of action of LPS. Here, we show that pineal glands possess both CD14 and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), membrane proteins that bind LPS and trigger the NFKB pathway. LPS induced the nuclear translocation of p50/p50 and p50/RELA dimers and the synthesis of TNF. The maximal expression of TNF in cultured glands coincides with an increase in the expression of TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) in isolated pinealocytes. In addition, LPS inhibited the synthesis of N-acetylserotonin and melatonin. Therefore, the pineal gland transduces Gram-negative endotoxin stimulation by producing TNF and inhibiting melatonin synthesis. Here, we provide evidence to reinforce the idea of an immune-pineal axis, showing that the pineal gland is a constitutive player in the innate immune response.
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Tamura EK, Jimenez RS, Waismam K, Gobbo-Neto L, Lopes NP, Malpezzi-Marinho EAL, Marinho EAV, Farsky SHP. Inhibitory effects of Solidago chilensis Meyen hydroalcoholic extract on acute inflammation. J Ethnopharmacol 2009; 122:478-485. [PMID: 19429316 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Alcoholic or hydroalcoholic preparations of the plant Solidago chilensis Meyen (Asteraceae) are employed in popular medicines to treat inflammation. The anti-inflammatory effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of the plant (93% ethanol) were investigated and the main components of the extract were identified. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ear oedema was induced in male Wistar rats by topical application of the chloroform fraction of latex-extract from Euphorbia milii. Leukocyte mobilisation was quantified after air-pouch inflammation evoked by oyster glycogen. Leukocyte-endothelial interactions and mast cell degranulation were quantified by intravital microscopy. The extract itself was characterised via HPLC-DAD-MS and HPLC-MS/MS. RESULTS Topical (12.5-50mg/kg) or intraperitoneal (25 or 50mg/kg) administrations of the extract reduced ear oedema formation (>25% reduction). Intraperitoneal applications of 25mg/kg of extract inhibited the migration of polymorphonuclear cells into the inflamed cavity (about 50%). In addition, the rolling behaviour and adherence of circulating leukocytes to postcapillary venules of the mesentery network was diminished (50%), but the mast cell degranulation in the perivascular area was not affected. The major components of the extract were identified as caffeoylquinic acid derivatives and the flavonoid rutin. CONCLUSIONS The data presented herein show local and systemic anti-inflammatory effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Solidago chilensis, and implicate the inhibition of leukocyte-endothelial interactions as an important mechanism of the extract's action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Koji Tamura
- Area de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Braz Cubas, Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil
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Abstract
Endothelial cells produce NO by activation of constitutive nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and transcription of inducible NOS (iNOS). We have previously shown that melatonin, in the nanomolar range, inhibits activation of constitutive NOS, and in the present paper, we evaluated whether it could interfere with the expression of iNOS, which is activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of gram-negative bacteria cell walls. Primary cultures of rat endothelial cells were loaded with fluorescent probe for NO detection. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) translocation in endothelial cells elicited by LPS was measured by electromobility shift assay, and the vasodilation of aortic rings was accessed by recording isometric contraction. Melatonin in a micromolar but not in a nanomolar range inhibits the NO production induced by LPS. This effect is not dependent on the activation of G protein-coupled melatonin receptors. The nuclear NF-kappaB translocation is a process necessary for iNOS transcription, and melatonin also inhibits its translocation. LPS induced vasodilation only in endothelium-intact aortic rings, and melatonin (10 mum) inhibits the vasodilation. Here, we show that concentrations compatible with nocturnal melatonin surge (nm) did not interfere with the activity of iNOS. Considering that micromolar melatonin concentrations could be locally achieved through production by activated immune competent cells, extra-pineal melatonin could have a protective effect against tissue injury. We propose that melatonin blocked the LPS-induced vasodilation by inhibiting the NF-kappaB pathway. Finally, we propose that the effect of melatonin on vascular reactivity is one of the mechanisms that underlies the protective effect of this indolamine against LPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Koji Tamura
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Silva CLM, Tamura EK, Macedo SMD, Cecon E, Bueno-Alves L, Farsky SHP, Ferreira ZS, Markus RP. Melatonin inhibits nitric oxide production by microvascular endothelial cells in vivo and in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 151:195-205. [PMID: 17375079 PMCID: PMC2013957 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We have previously shown that melatonin inhibits bradykinin-induced NO production by endothelial cells in vitro. The purpose of this investigation was to extend this observation to an in vivo condition and to explore the mechanism of action of melatonin. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH RT-PCR assays were performed with rat cultured endothelial cells. The putative effect of melatonin upon arteriolar tone was investigated by intravital microscopy while NO production by endothelial cells in vitro was assayed by fluorimetry, and intracellular Ca(2+) measurements were assayed by confocal microscopy. KEY RESULTS No expression of the mRNA for the melatonin synthesizing enzymes, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase and hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase, or for the melatonin MT(2) receptor was detected in microvascular endothelial cells. Melatonin fully inhibited L-NAME-sensitive bradykinin-induced vasodilation and also inhibited NO production induced by histamine, carbachol and 2-methylthio ATP, but did not inhibit NO production induced by ATP or alpha, beta-methylene ATP. None of its inhibitory effects was prevented by the melatonin receptor antagonist, luzindole. In nominally Ca(2+)-free solution, melatonin reduced intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization induced by bradykinin (40%) and 2-methylthio ATP (62%) but not Ca(2+) mobilization induced by ATP. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS We have confirmed that melatonin inhibited NO production both in vivo and in vitro. In addition, the melatonin effect was selective for some G protein-coupled receptors and most probably reflects an inhibition of Ca(2+) mobilization from intracellular stores.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L M Silva
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - E K Tamura
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - S M D Macedo
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - E Cecon
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - L Bueno-Alves
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - S H P Farsky
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Z S Ferreira
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - R P Markus
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
- Author for correspondence:
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